Abstract
The predominant emphasis on harmful effects of environmental stresses on growth of woody plants has obscured some very beneficial effects of such stresses. Slowly increasing stresses may induce physiological adjustment that protects plants from the growth inhibition and/or injury that follow when environmental stresses are abruptly imposed. In addition, short exposures of woody plants to extreme environmental conditions at critical times in their development often improve growth. Furthermore, maintaining harvested seedlings and plant products at very low temperatures extends their longevity.
Drought tolerance: Seedlings previously exposed to water stress often undergo less inhibition of growth and other processes following transplanting than do seedlings not previously exposed to such stress. Controlled wetting and drying cycles often promote early budset, dormancy, and drought tolerance. In many species increased drought tolerance following such cycles is associated with osmotic adjustment that involves accumulation of osmotically active substances. Maintenance of leaf turgor often is linked to osmotic adjustment. A reduction in osmotic volume at full turgor also results in reduced osmotic potential, even in the absence of solute accumulation. Changes in tissue elasticity may be important for turgor maintenance and drought tolerance of plants that do not adjust osmotically.
Water deficits and nutrient deficiencies promote greater relative allocation of photosynthate to root growth, ultimately resulting in plants that have higher root:shoot ratios and greater capacity to absorb water and minerals relative to the shoots that must be supported.
At the molecular level, plants respond to water stress by synthesis of certain new proteins and increased levels of synthesis of some proteins produced under well-watered conditions. Evidence has been obtained for enhanced synthesis under water stress of water-channel proteins and other proteins that may protect membranes and other important macromolecules from damage and denaturation as cells dehydrate.
Flood tolerance: Both artificial and natural flooding sometimes benefit woody plants. Flooding of orchard soils has been an essential management practice for centuries to increase fruit yields and improve fruit quality. Also, annual advances and recessions of floods are crucial for maintaining valuable riparian forests. Intermittent flooding protects bottomland forests by increasing groundwater supplies, transporting sediments necessary for creating favorable seedbeds, and regulating decomposition of organic matter. Major adaptations for flood tolerance of some woody plants include high capacity for producing adventitious roots that compensate physiologically for decay of original roots under soil anaerobiosis, facilitation of oxygen uptake through stomata and newly formed lenticels, and metabolic adjustments. Halophytes can adapt to saline water by salt tolerance, salt avoidance, or both.
Cold hardiness: Environmental stresses that inhibit plant growth, including low temperature, drought, short days, and combinations of these, induce cold hardening and hardiness in many species. Cold hardiness develops in two stages: at temperatures between 10° and 20°C in the autumn, when carbohydrates and lipids accumulate; and at subsequent freezing temperatures. The sum of many biochemical processes determines the degree of cold tolerance. Some of these processes are hormone dependent and induced by short days; others that are linked to activity of enzyme systems are temperature dependent. Short days are important for development of cold hardiness in species that set buds or respond strongly to photoperiod. Nursery managers often expose tree seedlings to moderate water stress at or near the end of the growing season. This accelerates budset, induces early dormancy, and increases cold hardiness.
Pollution tolerance: Absorption of gaseous air pollutants varies with resistance to flow along the pollutant’s diffusion path. Hence, the amount of pollutant absorbed by leaves depends on stomatal aperture, stomatal size, and stomatal frequency. Pollution tolerance is increased when drought, dry air, or flooding of soil close stomatal pores.
Heat tolerance: Exposure to sublethal high temperature can increase the thermotolerance of plants. Potential mechanisms of response include synthesis of heat-shock proteins and isoprene and antioxidant production to protect the photosynthetic apparatus and cellular metabolism.
Breaking of dormancy: Seed dormancy can be broken by cold or heat. Embryo dormancy is broken by prolonged exposure of most seeds to temperatures of 1° to 15°C. The efficiency of treatment depends on interactions between temperature and seed moisture content. Germination can be postponed by partially dehydrating seeds or altering the temperature during seed stratification. Seed-coat dormancy can be broken by fires that rupture seed coats or melt seedcoat waxes, hence promoting water uptake. Seeds with both embryo dormancy and seed-coat dormancy may require exposure to both high and low temperatures to break dormancy. Exposure to smoke itself can also serve as a germination cue in breaking seed dormancy in some species.
Bud dormancy of temperate-zone trees is broken by winter cold. The specific chilling requirement varies widely with species and genotype, type of bud (e.g., vegetative or floral bud), depth of dormancy, temperature, duration of chilling, stage of plant development, and daylength. Interruption of a cold regime by high temperature may negate the effect of sustained chilling or breaking of bud dormancy. Near-lethal heat stress may release buds from both endodormancy and ecodormancy.
Pollen shedding: Dehiscence of anthers and release of pollen result from dehydration of walls of anther sacs. Both seasonal and diurnal pollen shedding are commonly associated with shrinkage and rupture of anther walls by low relative humidity. Pollen shedding typically is maximal near midday (low relative humidity) and low at night (high relative humidity). Pollen shedding is low or negligible during rainy periods.
Seed dispersal: Gymnosperm cones typically dehydrate before opening. The cones open and shed seeds because of differential shrinkage between the adaxial and abaxial tissues of cone scales. Once opened, cones may close and reopen with changes in relative humidity. Both dehydration and heat are necessary for seed dispersal from serotinous (late-to-open) cones. Seeds are stored in serotinous cones because resinous bonds of scales prevent cone opening. After fire melts the resinous material, the cone scales can open on drying. Fires also stimulate germination of seeds of some species. Some heath plants require fire to open their serotinous follicles and shed seeds. Fire destroys the resin at the valves of follicles, and the valves then reflex to release the seeds. Following fire the follicles of some species require alternate wetting and drying for efficient seed dispersal.
Stimulation of reproductive growth: Vegetative and reproductive growth of woody plants are negatively correlated. A heavy crop of fruits, cones, and seeds is associated with reduced vegetative growth in the same or following year (or even years). Subjecting trees to drought during early stages of fruit development to inhibit vegetative growth, followed by normal irrigation, sometimes favors reproductive growth. Short periods of drought at critical times not only induce formation of flower buds but also break dormancy of flower buds in some species. Water deficits may induce flowering directly or by inhibiting shoot flushing, thereby limiting the capacity of young leaves to inhibit floral induction. Postharvest water stress often results in abundant return bloom over that in well-irrigated plants. Fruit yields of some species are not reduced or are increased by withholding irrigation during the period of shoot elongation. In several species, osmotic adjustment occurs during deficit irrigation. In other species, increased fruit growth by imposed drought is not associated largely with osmotic adjustment and maintenance of leaf turgor.
Seedling storage: Tree seedlings typically are stored at temperatures just above or below freezing. Growth and survival of cold-stored seedlings depend on such factors as: date of lifting from the nursery; species and genotype; storage temperature, humidity, and illumination; duration of storage; and handling of planting stock after storage. Seedlings to be stored over winter should be lifted from the nursery as late as possible. Dehydration of seedlings before, during, and after storage adversely affects growth of outplanted seedlings. Long-term storage of seedlings may result in depletion of stored carbohydrates by respiration and decrease of root growth potential. Although many seedlings are stored in darkness, a daily photoperiod during cold storage may stimulate subsequent growth and increase survival of outplanted seedlings. For some species, rapid thawing may decrease respiratory consumption of carbohydrates (over slowly thawed seedlings) and decrease development of molds.
Pollen storage: Preservation of pollen is necessary for insurance against poor flowering years, for gene conservation, and for physiological and biochemical studies. Storage temperature and pollen moisture content largely determine longevity of stored pollen. Pollen can be stored successfully for many years in deep freezers at temperatures near −15°C or in liquid nitrogen (−196°C). Cryopreservation of pollen with a high moisture content is difficult because ice crystals may destroy the cells. Pollens of many species do not survive at temperatures below −40°C if their moisture contents exceed 20–30%. Pollen generally is air dried, vacuum dried, or freeze dried before it is stored. To preserve the germination capacity of stored pollen, rehydration at high humidity often is necessary.
Seed storage: Seeds are routinely stored to provide a seed supply during years of poor seed production, to maintain genetic diversity, and to breed plants. For a long time, seeds were classified as either orthodox (relatively long-lived, with capacity for dehydration to very low moisture contents without losing viability) or recalcitrant (short-lived and requiring a high moisture content for retention of viability). More recently, some seeds have been reclassified as suborthodox or intermediate because they retain viability when carefully dried. True orthodox seeds are preserved much more easily than are nonorthodox seeds. Orthodox seeds can be stored for a long time at temperatures between 2° and −20°C, with temperatures below −5°C preferable. Some orthodox seeds have been stored at superlow temperatures, although temperatures of −40°, −70°, or −196°C have not been appreciably better than −20°C for storage of seeds of a number of species. Only relatively short-term storage protocols have been developed for nonorthodox seeds. These treatments typically extend seed viability to as much as a year. The methods often require cryopreservation of excised embryos. Responses to cryopreservation of nonorthodox seeds or embryos vary with species and genotype, rate of drying, use of cryoprotectants, rates of freezing and thawing, and rate of rehydration.
Fruit storage: Storing fruits at low temperatures above freezing, increasing the CO2 concentration, and lowering the O2 concentration of fruit storage delays senescence of fruits and prolongs their life. Fruits continue to senesce and decay while in storage and become increasingly susceptible to diseases. Both temperate-zone and tropical fruits may develop chilling injury characterized by lesions, internal discoloration, greater susceptibility to decay, and shortened storage life. Chilling injury can be controlled by chemicals, temperature conditioning, and intermittent warming during storage. Stored fruits may become increasingly susceptible to disease organisms. Fruit diseases can be controlled by cold, which inhibits growth of microorganisms and maintains host resistance. Exposure of fruits to high CO2 and low O2 during storage directly suppresses disease-causing fungi. Pathogens also can be controlled by exposing fruits to heat before, during, and after storage. Scald that often develops during low-temperature storage can be controlled by chemicals and by heat treatments.
Similar content being viewed by others
Literature Cited
Abdul-Baki, A. A. &J. D. Anderson. 1972. Physiological and biochemical deterioration of seeds. Pp. 283–315in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Seed biology. Vol. 2. Germination control, metabolism, and pathology. Academic Press, New York.
Abrams, M. D. 1988a. Genetic variation in leaf morphology and plant and tissue water relations during drought inCercis canadensis L. Forest Sci. 34: 200–207.
—. 1988b. Comparative plant and tissue water relations of three successional hardwood species in central Wisconsin. Tree Physiol. 4: 263–273.
— 1988c. Sources of variation in osmotic potentials with special reference to North American tree species. Forest Sci. 34: 1030–1046.
— &A. K. Knapp. 1986. Seasonal water relations of three gallery forest hardwood species in northeast Kansas. Forest Sci. 32: 687–696.
Adriansz, T. D., J. M. Rummey &I. J. Bennett. 2000. Solid phase extraction and subsequent identification by gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry of a germination cue present in smoky water. Analytical Lett. 33: 2793–2804.
Agashe, S. N. &A. G. Alfadil. 1989. Atmospheric biopollutant monitoring in relation to meteorological parameters. Grana 28: 97–104.
Ahuja, M. R. 1986. Storage of forest tree germplasm in liquid nitrogen (-196°C). Silvae Genet. 35: 249–251.
Akihama, T. &M. Omura. 1986. Preservation of fruit tree pollen. Pp. 101–112in Y. P. S. Bajaj (ed.), Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry. Vol. 1. Trees. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
——. &I. Kozaki. 1979. Long-term storage of fruit tree pollen and its application in breeding. Jap. Agric. Res. Quart. 13: 238–241.
Al-Ani, A., F. Bruzau, P. Raymond, V. Saint-Ges, J. M. LeBlanc &A. Pradet. 1985. Germination, respiration and adenylate energy charge of seeds at various oxygen partial pressures. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 79: 885–890.
Alam, M. T. &W. F. Grant. 1971. Pollen longevity in birch (Betula). Canad. J. Bot. 49: 797–798.
Aldhous, J. R. 1964. Cold storage of forest nursery plants: An account of experimental trials, 1958–63. Forestry (Oxford) 37: 47–63.
Allen, J. A., J. L. Chambers &M. Stine. 1994. Prospects for increasing the salt tolerance of forest trees: A review. Tree Physiol. 14: 843–853.
Allen, R. &A. B. Wardrop. 1964. The opening and shedding mechanism of the female cones ofPinus radiata. Austral. J. Bot. 12: 125–134.
Altman, P. L. & D. S. Dittmer (comps. &eds.). 1972. Life spans: Pollen. P. 1: 242in Biology data book. Ed. 2. Fed. of Amer. Societies for Exp. Biol., Bethesda, MD.
Alvira, P.de T. &R. Alvim. 1978. Relation of climate to growth periodicity in tropical trees. Pp. 445–464in P. B. Tomlinson & M. H. Zimmermann (eds.), Tropical trees as living systems. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
Anderson, J. L., E. A. Richardson &C. D. Kesner. 1986. Validation of chill unit and flower bud phenology models for Montmorency sour cherry. Acta Hort. 184: 71–77.
Anderson, R. E. 1979. The influence of storage temperature and warming during storage on peach and nectarine fruit quality. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104: 459–461.
—. 1982. Long-term storage of peaches and nectarines intermittently warmed during controlledatmosphere storage. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107: 214–216.
Angeles, G. 1992. The periderm of flooded and non-floodedLudwigea octovalvis (Onagraceae). IAWA Bull. 13: 195–200.
—,R. F. Evert &T. T. Kozlowski. 1986. Development of lenticels and adventitious roots in floodedUlmus americana seedlings. Canad. J. Forest Res. 16: 585–590.
Angelov, M. N., S. S. Sung, R. L. Doong, W. R. Harms, P. P. Kormanik &C. C. Black Jr. 1996. Long and short-term flooding effects on survival and sink-source relationships of swamp adapted tree species. Tree Physiol. 16: 477–484.
Aphalo, P. J. &P. G. Jarvis. 1991. Do stomata respond to relative humidity? Pl. Cell Environ.14: 127–132.
Armstrong, W., R. Brandie &M. B. Jackson. 1994. Mechanisms of flood tolerance in plants. Acta Bot. Neerl. 43: 307–358.
Aronsson, A. 1975. Influence of photo- and thermoperiod on the initial stages of frost hardening and dehardening of phytotron-grown seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus silvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) Stud. Forest Suec. 128: 1–20.
— &L. Eliasson. 1970. Frost hardiness in Scotch pine, I. Conditions for test on hardy plant tissues and for evaluation of injuries by conductivity measurements. Stud. Forest Suec. 36: 127–132.
Arora, R. &M. E. Wisniewski. 1994. Cold acclimation in genetically related (sibling) deciduous and evergreen peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.), II. A 60-kilodalton bark protein in cold-acclimated tissues of peach. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster)105: 95–101.
Ashby, W. C. 1962. Budbreak and growth of basswood as influenced by daylength, chilling, and gibberellic acid. Bot. Gaz. 123: 162–170.
—,D. F. Bresnan, C. A. Huetteman, J. E. Preece &P. L. Roth. 1991. Chilling and bud break in silver maple. J. Environm. Hort. 9: 1–4.
Atkinson, C. J. J., W. E. Winner &H. A. Mooney. 1988. Gas exchange and SO2 fumigation studies with irrigated and unirrigated field grownDiplacus aurianticus andHeteromeles arbutifolia. Oecologia 75: 386–393.
Augé, R. M. &J. W. Stodola. 1990. An apparent increase in symplastic water contributes to greater turgor in mycorrhizal roots of draughtedRosa plants. New Phytol. 115: 285–296.
—,K. A. Schekel &R. L. Wample. 1986. Osmotic adjustment in leaves of VA mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal rose plants in response to drought stress. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 82: 765–770.
Austin, M. E., B. G. Mullinix &J. S. Mason. 1982. Influence of chilling on growth and flowering of rabbiteye blueberries. HortScience 17: 768–769.
Bahari, Z. A., S. G. Pallardy &W. C. Parker. 1985. Photosynthesis, water relations, and drought adaptation in six woody species of oak-hickory forests in central Missouri. Forest Sci. 31: 557–569.
Barbera, G., G. Fatta del Bosco &B. LoCascio. 1985. Effects of water stress on lemon summer bloom. The “Forzatura” technique in the Sicilian citrus industry. Acta Hort. 171: 391–397.
Barbosa, W., F. A. Campo-Dallorto, M. Ojiima, F. P. Martins &Y. M. S. Boaventura. 1991. Pollen storage and germination, pollination and fruit set in subtropical peaches and nectarines. Bragantia 50: 17–28.
Barden, L. S. 1979. Serotiny and seed viability ofPinus pungens in the southern Appalachians. Castanea 44: 44–47.
Bartels, D., K. Schneider, G. Terstappen, D. Piatkowski &F. Salamini. 1990. Molecular cloning of abscisic acid-modulated genes which are induced during desiccation of the resurrection plantCraterostigma plantagineum. Planta 181: 27–34.
Bates, R. M., A. X. Niemiera &J. R. Seiler. 1994. Cold storage method affects root and shoot water potential of bare-root hawthorn and maple trees. J. Environm. Hort. 12: 219–222.
Bayley, P. B. 1995. Understanding large river-floodplain ecosystems. BioScience 45: 153–158.
Beaufait, W. R. 1960. Some effects of high temperatures on the cones and seeds of jack pine. Forest Sci. 6: 194–199.
Beckman, C, R. L. Perry &J. A. Flore. 1992. Short-term flooding affects gas exchange characteristics of containerized sour cherry trees. HortScience 27: 1297–1301.
Bedinger, M. S. 1981. Hydrology of the bottomland forests of the Mississippi embayment. Pp. 161–176in J. R. Clark & J. Benforado (eds.), Wetlands of bottomland hardwood forests. Elsevier, New York.
Bell, D. T., J. A. Plummer &S. K. Taylor. 1993. Seed germination ecology in western Australia. Bot. Rev. (Lancaster) 59: 24–54.
Bellani, L. M. &P. R. Bell. 1986. Cytoplasmic differences between the pollen grains of two cultivars ofMalus domestica Borkh. correlated with viability and germination. Ann. Bot. (London), n.s., 58: 563–568.
Bengston, G. W. 1965. Effects of intensive culture on nutrition, growth and flower production of young slash pine. U.S. Forest Serv., Prog. Rep. FS-l-f9. Southeastern Forest Exp. Sta., Asheville, NC.
Berjak, P., J. M. Farrant, D. J. Maycock &N. W. Pammenter. 1990. Recalcitrant (homoiohydrous) seeds: The enigma of their desiccation-sensitivity. Seed Sci. & Technol. 18: 279–310.
—,N. W. Pammenter &C. Vertucci. 1992. Homoiohydrous (recalcitrant) seeds: Development status, desiccation sensitivity and the state of water in axes ofLandolphia kirkii Dyer. Planta 186: 249–261.
Berninger, F., A. Makela &P. Hari. 1996. Optimal control of gas exchange during drought: Empirical evidence. Ann. Bot. (London), n.s., 77: 469–476.
Berry, J. A. &O. Björkman. 1980. Photosynthetic response and adaptation to temperature in higher plants. Annual Rev. Pl. Physiol. 31: 491–543.
Bewley, J. D. &M. Black. 1982. Physiology and biochemistry of seeds in relation to germination. Vol. 2. Viability, dormancy, and environmental control. Springer-Verlag, New York.
—,K. M. Larsen &J. E. Papp. 1983. Water-stress-induced changes in the pattern of protein synthesis in maize seedling mesocotyls: A comparison with the effects of heat shock. J. Exp. Bot. 34: 1126–1133.
Bigras, F. J. &A. L. D’Aoust. 1993. Influence of photoperiod on shoot and root frost tolerance and bud phenology of white spruce seedlings (Picea glauca). Canad. J. Forest Res. 23: 219–228.
Biswell, H. H. 1974. Effects of fire on chaparral. Pp. 321–364in T. T. Kozlowski & C. E. Ahlgren (eds.), Fire and ecosystems. Academic Press, New York.
—. 1989. Prescribed burning in California wildlands vegetation management. Univ. of California Press, Berkeley.
Blake, J., J. B. Zaerr &S. Hee. 1979. Controlled moisture stress to improve cold hardiness and morphology of Douglas-fir seedlings. Forest Sci. 25: 576–582.
Blake, T. J. &T. J. Tschaplinski. 1992. Water relations. Pp. 66–94in C. P. Mitchell, J. B. FordRobertson, T. M. Hinckley & L. Sennerby-Forsse (eds.), Ecophysiology of short rotation forest crops. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Blazich, F. A. &L. E. Hinesley. 1984. Low temperature germination of Fraser fir seed. Canad. J. Forest Res. 14: 948–949.
Boland, A.-M., P. D. Mitchell, P. H. Jerie &I. Goodwin. 1993. The effect of regulated deficit irrigation on tree water use and growth of peach. J. Hort. Sci. 68: 261–274.
Bonner, F. 1986. Technologies to maintain tree germplasm diversity. Pp. 2: 630–672in Technologies to maintain biological diversity. Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, DC.
—. 1990. Storage of seeds: Potential and limitations for germplasm conservation. Forest Ecol. & Managern. 35: 35–43.
Botkin, D. B. 1993. Forest dynamics: An ecological model. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.
Bradstock, R. A. 1991. The role of fire in establishment of seedlings of serotinous species from the Sydney region. Austral. J. Bot. 39: 347–356.
—,A. M. Gill, S. M. Hastings &P. H. Moore. 1994. Survival of serotinous seedbanks during bushfires: Comparative studies ofHakea species from southeastern Australia. Austral. J. Ecol. 19: 276–282.
Bramlage, W. J. &S. Meir. 1990. Chilling injury of crops of temperate origin. Pp. 37–49in C.-Y. Wang (ed.), Chilling injury of horticultural crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
— &C. D. Watkins. 1993. Warming apples during cold storage: Its potential as a non-chemical procedure to reduce losses from superficial scald. HortScience 28: 235.
Bramlett, D. L. &F. R. Matthews. 1991. Storing loblolly pine pollen. Southern J. Appl. Forest. 15: 153–157.
Bray, E., J. Bailey-Serres &E. Weretilynk. 2000. Response to abiotic stresses. Pp. 1158–1203in B. B. Buchanan, W. Gruissem & R. L. Jones (eds.), Biochemistry and molecular biology of plants. Amer. Soc. Pl. Physiol., Rockville, MD.
Brown, N. A. &J. Van Staden. 1997. Smoke as a germination cue: A review. Pl. Growth Regulation 22: 115–124.
Brown, R. M. 1971. Cold storage of forest plants. Quart. J. Forest. 65: 305–315.
Buckley, G. P. &P. H. Lovell. 1974. The effect of cold storage on subsequent growth of one-year-old seedlings ofPicea sitchensis. Ann. Bot. (London), n.s., 38: 657–660.
Bullock, S. 1982. Reproductive ecology ofCeanothus cordulatus. M.A. thesis, California State Univ., Fresno.
Burke, J. J., P. J. O’Mahony, &M. J. Oliver. 2000. Isolation ofArabidopsis mutants lacking components of acquired thermotolerance. Pl. Physiol.(Lancaster) 123: 575–587.
Buxton, G. F., D. R. Cyr &E. B. Dumbroff. 1985. Physiological responses of three northern conifers to rapid and slow induction of moisture stress. Canad. J. Bot. 63: 1171–1176.
Camm, E. L., D. C. Goetze, S. N. Silim &D. P. Lavender. 1994. Cold storage of conifer seedlings: An update from the British Columbia perspective. Forest Chron. 70: 311–316.
—,R. D. Guy, D. S. Kubien, D. C. Goetze, S. N. Silim &P. J. Burton. 1995. Physiological recovery of freezer-stored white and Engelmann spruce seedlings planted following different thawing regimes. New Forests 10: 55–77.
Campbell, R. K. &F. C. Sorenson. 1973. Cold-acclimation in seedling Douglas-fir related to phenology and provenance. Ecology 54: 1148–1151.
Campbell, S. A. &T. J. Close. 1997. Dehydrins: Genes, proteins, and associations with phenotypic traits. New Phytol. 137: 61–74.
Cannell, M. G. 1989. Chilling, thermal time and the date of flowering of trees. Pp. 99–113in C. J. Wright (ed.), Manipulation of fruiting. Butterworths, London.
— &L. J. Sheppard. 1982. Seasonal changes in the frost hardiness of provenances ofPicea sitchensis in Scotland. Forestry (Oxford) 55: 137–153.
——.R. I. Smith &M. B. Murray. 1985. Autumn frost damage on youngPicea sitchensis, 2. Shoot frost hardening, and the probability of frost damage in Scotland. Forestry (Oxford) 58: 145–166.
—,P. B. Tabbush, J. D. Deans, M. K. Hollingsworth, L. J. Sheppard, J. J. Philipson &M. B. Murray. 1990. Sitka spruce and Douglas-fir seedlings in the nursery and in cold storage: Root growth potential, carbohydrate content, dormancy, frost hardiness, and mitotic index. Forestry (Oxford) 63: 9–27.
Caspari, H. W., M. H. Behboudian &D. J. Chalmers. 1994. Water use, growth, and fruit yield of Hosui Asian pears under deficit irrigation. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 119: 383–388.
Cayford, J. H. &D. J. McRae. 1983. The ecological role of fire risk in jack pine forests. Pp. 183–199in R. W. Wein & D. A. MacLean (eds.), The role of fire in northern circumpolar ecosystems. Wiley, New York.
Cellier, F., G. Conejero, J. C. Breitler &F. Casse. 1998. Molecular and physiological responses to water deficit in drought-tolerant and drought-sensitive lines of sunflower: Accumulation of dehydrin transcripts correlates with tolerance. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 116: 319–328.
Chalmers, D. J., K. A. Olsson &T. R. Jones. 1983. Water relations of peach trees and orchards. Pp. 197–232in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. 3. Plant responses and control of water balance. Academic Press, New York.
—,P. D. Mitchell &P. H. Jerie. 1984. The physiology of growth of peach and pear trees using reduced irrigation. Acta Hort. 146: 143–149.
Chalutz, E., J. Waks &M. Schiffmann-Nade. 1985. Reducing the susceptibility of grapefruit to chilling injury during cold treatment. HortScience 20: 226–228.
Chen, P. M., P. H. Li &M. J. Burke. 1977. Induction of frost hardiness in stem cortical tissues and water status in plants and soil. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 59: 236–239.
Chen, T. H., P. Murakami, P. Lombard &L. H. Fuchigami. 1991. Desiccation tolerance in barerooted apple trees prior to transplanting. J. Environm. Hort. 9: 13–17.
Cherry, J. H. (ed.). 1989. Environmental stress in plants: Biochemical and physiological mechanisms. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Ching, T. M. &K. K. Ching. 1962. Physical and physiological changes in maturing Douglas-fir cones and seeds. For. Sci. 8: 21–31.
Chirkova, T. V. &T. S. Gutman. 1972. Physiological role of branch lenticels in willow and poplar under conditions of root anaerobiosis. Soviet Pl. Physiol. 19: 289–295.
Choi, H. S. 1992. Variation in water potential components among half sib families of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) in response to soil drought. Canad. J. Forest Res. 22: 111–116.
Christensen, N. L. 1995. Fire ecology. Pp. 2: 21–32in W. A. Nierenberg (ed.), Encyclopedia of environmental biology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Christersson, L. 1978. The influence of photoperiod and temperature on the development of frost hardiness in seedlings ofPinus sylvestris andPicea abies. Physiol. Pl. 44: 288–294.
Clausen, J. J. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1965. Seasonal changes in moisture contents of gymnosperm cones. Nature 206: 112–113.
Clemens, J. &P. G. Jones. 1978. Modification of drought resistance by water stress conditioning inAcacia andEucalyptus. J. Exp. Bot. 29: 895–904.
Cline, R. G. &G. S. Campbell. 1976. Seasonal and diurnal water relations of selected forest species. Ecology 57: 367–373.
Close, T. J. 1996. Dehydrins: Emergence of a biochemical role of a family of plant dehydration proteins. Physiol. Pl. 97: 795–803.
—. 1997. Dehydrins: A commonality in the response of plants to dehydration and low temperature. Physiol. Pl. 100: 291–296.
Cohen, E., M. Shueli &Y. Shalom. 1983. The effect of intermittent warming on the reduction of chilling injury of Villa Franca lemon fruit stored at cold temperature. J. Hort. Sci. 58: 593–598.
Collier, D. E. &M. G. Boyer. 1989. The water relations ofThuja occidentalis L. from two sites of contrasting moisture availability. Bot. Gaz. 150: 445–448.
Colombo, S. J. 1990. Bud dormancy status, frost hardiness, shoot moisture content and readiness of black spruce container seedlings for frozen storage. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 115: 302–307.
— &E. M. Raitanen. 1991. Frost hardening in white cedar container seedlings exposed to intermittent short days and cold temperatures. Forest Chron. 67: 542–544.
Connor, K. F. &L. E. Towill. 1993. Pollen-handling protocol and hydration/dehydration characteristics of pollen for application to long-term storage. Euphytica 68: 77–84.
Conway, W. S., C. E. Sams, C. Y. Wang &J. A. Abbott. 1994. Additive effects of postharvest calcium and heat treatment on reducing decay and maintaining quality in apples. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 119: 49–53.
Copes, D. L. 1985. Fertility of Douglas-fir pollen after one year of storage in liquid nitrogen. Forest Sci. 31: 569–574.
—. 1987. Long-term storage of Douglas-fir pollens. Forest Sci. 33: 244–246.
Courts, M. P. 1981. Effects of root or shoot exposure before planting on the water relations, growth and survival of Sitka spruce. Canad. J. Forest Res. 11: 703–709.
— &J. J. Philipson. 1978. Tolerance of tree roots to waterlogging, II. Adaptation of Sitka spruce and lodgepole pine to waterlogged soil. New Phytol. 80: 71–77.
Couvillon, G. A. &A. Erez. 1985. Effect of level and duration of high temperatures on rest in the peach. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 110: 579–581.
Cowling, R. M. &B. B. Lamont. 1985. Seed release inBanksia: The role of wet-dry cycles. Austral. J. Ecol. 10: 169–171.
Cram, W. H. &C. H. Lundquist. 1981. Overwintering and spring storage of pine and spruce seedlings. Forest Chron. 57: 162–164.
Crane, J. H. &F. S. Davies. 1988. Periodic and seasonal flooding effects on survival, growth, and stomatal conductance of young rabbiteye blueberry plants. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.113: 488–493.
—. 1989. Flooding responses ofVaccinium species. HortScience 24: 203–210.
Crawford, R. M. M. 1989. Studies in plant survival: Ecological case histories of plant adaptation to adversity. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.
—. 1993. Plant survival without oxygen. Biologist 40: 110–114.
— &R. Braendle. 1996. Oxygen deprivation stress in a changing environment. J. Exp. Bot. 47: 145–159.
Cripps, J. E. L. 1981. Biennial patterns in apple tree growth and cropping as related to irrigation and thinning. J. Hort. Sci. 56: 161–168.
Crisosto, C. H., R. S. Johnson, J. G. Luza &G. M. Crisosto. 1994. Irrigation regimes affect fruit soluble solids concentration and rate of water loss of O’Henry peaches. HortScience 29: 1169–1171.
Crivelli, A. J., P. Grilles &B. Lacaze. 1995. Responses of vegetation to a rise in water level at Kerkini Reservoir (1982–1991), a Ramsar site in northern Greece. Environm. Managern. 19: 417–430.
Cromer, R. N. &P. G. Jarvis. 1990. Growth and biomass partitioning inEucalyptus grandis seedlings in response to nitrogen supply. Austral. J. P1. Physiol. 17: 503–516.
D’Aoust, A. L. & S. E. Cameron. 1982. The effect of dormancy induction, low temperatures and moisture stress on cold hardening of containerized black spruce seedlings. Pp. 153–156in J. B. Scaratt, C. Glerum & C. A. Plexman (eds.), Proceedings of the Canadian Containerized Tree Seedling Symposium. Dept. of the Environm., Canad. Forest. Serv., Great Lakes Forest Res. Centre. COJFRC Symp. O-P-10.
Dat, J. F., C. H. Foyer &I. M. Scott. 1998. Changes in salicylic acid and antioxidants during induced thermotolerance in mustard seedlings. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 118: 1455–1461.
Davenport, T. L. 1990. Citrus flowering. Hort. Rev. 12: 349–408.
— 1994. Beneficial effects of water stress. Pp. 16–20in T. L. Davenport & H. M. Harrington (eds.), Plant stress in the tropical environment. U.S. Dept. Agric, Washington, DC.
Davies, D. D. 1980. Anaerobic metabolism and the production of organic acids. Pp. 511–611in D. D. Davies (ed.), The biochemistry of plants. Vol. 2. Metabolism and respiration. Academic Press, New York.
Davies, F. S. &L. G. Albrigo. 1983. Water relations of small fruits. Pp. 89–136in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. 7. Additional woody crop plants. Academic Press, New York.
— &J. A. Flore. 1986a. Flooding, gas exchange and hydraulic conductivity of highbush blueberry. Physiol. Pl. 67: 545–551.
—. 1986b. Short-term flooding effects on gas exchange and quantum yield of rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium ashei Reade). Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 81: 289–292.
— &A. N. Lakso. 1979. Diurnal and seasonal changes in leaf water potential components and elastic properties in response to water stress in apple trees. Physiol. Pl. 46: 109–114.
Davies, H. V. &N. J. Pinfield. 1979. RNA and protein synthesis during after-ripening of seedsof Acer platanoides L. Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 92: 85–90.
Davies, W. J. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1974. Stomatal responses of five woody angiosperms to light intensity and humidity. Canad. J. Bot. 52: 1525–1534.
—. 1975a. Effects of applied abscisic acid and plant water stress on transpiration of woody angiosperms. Forest Sci. 22: 191–195.
—. 1975b. Effect of applied abscisic acid and silicone on water relations and photosynthesis of woody plants. Canad. J. Forest Res. 5: 90–96.
Davis, J. T. &D. Sparks. 1974. Assimilation and translocation patterns of carbon-14 in the shoots of fruiting pecan treesCarya illinoensis Koch. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 99: 468–480.
Deans, J. D., C. Lundberg, P. M. Tabbush, M. G. R. Cannell, L. J. Sheppard &M. B. Murray. 1990. The influence of desiccation, rough handling and cold storage on the quality and establishment of Sitka spruce planting stock. Forestry (Oxford) 63: 129–141.
DeCastro, M. F.-G. &C. J. Martinez-Honduvilla. 1982. Biochemical changes inPinus pinea seeds during storing. Revista Española de Fisiología (Pamplona) 38: 13–20.
— 1984. Ultrastructural changes in naturally agedPinus pinea seeds. Physiol. Pl. 62: 581–588.
Deffenbacher, F. W. &E. Wright. 1954. Refrigerated storage of conifer seedlings in the Pacific Northwest. J. Forest. 52: 936.
Dennis, C. (ed.). 1983. Post-harvest pathology of fruits and vegetables. Academic Press, New York.
Dennis, F. G., Jr. 1996. A physiological comparison of seed and bud dormancy. Pp. 47–56in G. A. Lang (ed.), Plant dormancy: Physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology. CAB International, Oxford.
Despain, D. G., D. L. Clark &J. J. Reardon. 1996. Simulation of crown fire effects on canopy seed bank in lodgepole pine. Int. J. Wildland Fire 6: 45–49.
Dewers, R. S. &D. M. Moehring. 1970. Effects of soil water stress on initiation of ovulate primordia in loblolly pine. Forest Sci. 16: 219–221.
Dewey, D. H. (ed.). 1977. Controlled atmospheres for the storage and transport of perishable agricultural commodities. Dept. of Hort., Rep. No. 28. Michigan State Univ., East Lansing.
Dick, J. McP., P. G. Jarvis &R. R. B. Leakey. 1990. Influence of male cones on early season vegetative growth ofPinus contorta trees. Tree Physiol. 6: 105–117.
Dickmann, D. I. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1970. Mobilization and incorporation of photoassimilated14C by growing vegetative and reproductive tissues of adultPinus resinosa Ait. trees. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 45: 284–288.
——. 1973. Water, nutrient, and carbohydrate relations in growth ofPinus resinosa ovulate strobili. Pp. 195–209in Proceedings of the First All Union Symposium on Sexual Reproduction in Conifers. Novosibirsk, USSR.
Di-Giovanni, F. &P. Kevan. 1991. Factors affecting pollen dynamics and its importance to pollen contamination: A review. Canad. J. Forest Res. 21: 1155–1170.
Drake, S. R., F. E. Larsen &S. S. Higgins. 1991. Quality and storage of Granny Smith and Greenspur apples on seedling M.26 and MM.111 rootstocks. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 116: 261–264.
Dreyer, E., F. Bosquet &M. Ducrey. 1990. Use of pressure-volume curves in water relations analysis in woody shoots: Influence of rehydration and comparison of four European oak species. Ann. Sci. Forest. 47: 285–297.
Dry, P. R. &B. R. Loveys. 1999. Grapevine shoot growth and stomatal conductance are reduced when part of the root system is dried. Vitis 38: 151–156.
Duffield, J. W. &R. Z. Callaham. 1959. Deep-freezing pine pollen. Silvae Genet. 8: 22–24.
Duncan, R. P. 1993. Flood disturbance and the coexistence of species in a lowland podocarp forest, south Westland, New Zealand. J. Ecol. 81: 403–416.
Durand, G. 1990. Effects of RDI on apple tree (cv.Royal Gala) growth, yield, and fruit quality in a humid environment. Ph.D. diss., Massey Univ., Palmerston North, New Zealand.
During, H. 1985. Osmotic adjustment in grapevines. Acta Hort. 171: 315–322.
Duryea, M. L. & T. D. Landis (eds.). 1984. Forest nursery manual. M. Nijhoff / Dr. W. Junk, The Hague.
— &K. M. McClain. 1984. Altering seedling physiology to improve reforestation success. Pp. 77–114in M. L. Duryea & G. N. Brown (eds.), Seedling physiology and reforestation success. M. Nijhoff/ Dr. W. Junk, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
Ebel, R. C., E. L. Proebsting &M. E. Patterson. 1993. Regulated deficit irrigation may alter apple maturity, quality, and storage life. HortScience 28: 141–143.
Edwards, D. G. W. 1986. Special prechilling techniques for tree seed. J. Seed Technol. 10: 151–171.
Eis, S., E. H. Garman &L. F. Ebell. 1965. Relation between cone production and diameter increment of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl.) and western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl.). Canad. J. Bot. 43: 1553–1559.
El-Goorani, M. A. &N. F. Sommer. 1981. Effects of modified atmospheres on postharvest pathogens of fruits and vegetables. Hort. Rev. 3: 412–461.
Ellis, R. H., T. D. Hong & E. H. Roberts. 1985. Handbook of seed technology for genebanks. 2 vols. Int. Board for Pl. Genet. Resources, Rome.
Enright, N. J. &B. B. Lamont. 1989. Fire temperatures and follicle-opening requirements in 10Banksia species. Austral. J. Ecol. 14: 107–114.
Epron, D. 1997. Effects of drought on photosynthesis and on the thermotolerance of photosystem II in seedlings of cedar (Cedrus atlantica andC. libani). J. Exp. Bot. 48: 1835.
Erez, A. &G. A. Couvillon. 1987. Characterization of the moderate temperature effect on peach bud rest. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 112: 677–680.
—— &C. H. Hendershott. 1979. The effect of cycle length on chilling negation by high temperatures in dormant peach buds. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104: 573–576.
Fahn, A. &E. Werker. 1972. Anatomical mechanisms of seed dispersal. Pp. 155–121in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Seed biology. Vol. 1. Importance, development, and germination. Academic Press, New York.
Fallik, E., S. Grinberg, M. Gambourg, J. D. Klein &S. Lurie. 1996. Prestorage heat treatment reduces pathogenicityof Penicillium expansum in apple fruits. Pl. Pathol. (Oxford) 45: 92–97.
Fan, S., T. J. Blake &E. Blumwald. 1994. The relative contribution of elastic and osmotic adjustments to turgor maintenance of woody species. Physiol. Pl. 90: 408–413.
Fanjul, L. &H. G. Jones. 1982. Rapid stomatal responses to humidity. Planta 154: 135–138.
— &P. H. Rosher. 1984. Effect of water stress on internal water relations of apple leaves. Physiol. Pl. 62: 321–328.
Farmer, R. E., Jr. &P. E. Barnett. 1974. Low temperature storage of black walnut pollen. Cryobiology 11: 366–367.
— &M. Cunningham. 1981. Seed dormancy of red maple in east Tennessee. Forest Sci. 27: 446–448.
— &J. C. Goelz. 1984. Germination characteristics of red maple in northwestern Ontario. Forest Sci. 30: 670–672.
Fenner, P., W. W. Brady &D. R. Patten. 1985. Effects of regulated water flows on regeneration of Fremont cottonwood. J. Range Managern. 38: 135–138.
Fereres, E., G. Cruz-Romero, G. J. Hoffman &S. L. Rawlins. 1979. Recovery of orange trees following severe water stress. J. Appl. Ecol. 16: 833–842.
Fernandez, R. T., R. L. Perry &J. A. Flore. 1997. Drought response of young apple trees on three rootstocks, 2. Gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, water relations, and leaf abscisic acid. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 122: 841–848.
Fidler, J. C. 1973. The biology of apple and pear storage. Commonw. Bur. Hort. & Plantation Crops, Res. Rev. No. 3. Commonw. Agric. Bur., Farnham Royal, UK.
— &G. Mann. 1972. Refrigerated storage of apples and pears: A practical guide. Commonw. Bur. Hort. & Plantation Crops, Res. Rev. No. 2. Commonw. Agric. Bur., Farnham Royal, UK.
Fielding, J. M. 1947. The seeding and natural regeneration of Monterey pine in South Australia. Austral. Forest. & Timber Bur. Bull. 29: 1–60.
—. 1957. Notes on the dispersal of pollen by Monterey pine. Austral. Forest. 21: 17–22.
Fimbel, R. A., C. C. Fimbel &J. E. Kuser. 1995. Selection and processing of serotinous pitch pine cones. Northern J. Appl. Forest. 12: 64–68.
Fishman, S., A. Erez &G. A. Couvillon. 1987a. The temperature dependence of dormancy breaking in plants: Mathematical analysis of a two-step model involving a cooperative transition. J. Theor. Biol. 124: 473–483.
—. 1987b. The temperature dependence of dormancy breaking in plants: Computer simulation of processes studied under controlled temperatures. J. Theor. Biol. 126: 309–321.
Fitter, A. H. &R. K. M. Hay. 1987. Environmental physiology of plants. Ed. 2. Academic Press, London.
Flint, H. L. &J. J. McGuire. 1962. Response of rooted cuttings of several woody ornamental species to overwinter storage. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 80: 625–629.
Fraser, B., S. Haywood-Farmer &C. Kooistra. 1990. Thawing guidelines for frozen stock. Pp. 61–64in R. Scagel & R. Evans (eds.), Consumers guide to tree seedlings: A workbook on production, testing and handling. Canada-British Columbia Forest Resource Development Agreement. Victoria, BC.
Fraver, S. 1992. The insulating value of serotinous cones in protecting pitch pine (Pinus rigida) seeds from high temperatures. J. Pennsylvania Acad. Sci. 65: 112–116.
Fray, R. G., A. Wallace, D. Grierson &G. W. Lycett. 1994. Nucleotide sequence and expression of a ripening and water stress-related cDNA from tomato with homology to the MIP class of membrane channel proteins. Pl. Molec. Biol. 24: 539–543.
Fuchigami, L. H. &C. C. Nee. 1987. Degree of growth stage model and rest breaking mechanisms in temperate woody perennials. HortScience 22: 836–845.
—,D. R. Evert &C. J. Weiser. 1971. A translocatable cold hardiness promoter. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 47: 164–167.
Ganeshan, S. 1986. Cryogenic preservation of papaya pollen. Sci. Hort. 28: 65–70.
Garber, M. P. &J. G. Mexal. 1980. Lift and storage practices: Their impact on successful establishment of Southern pine plantations. New Zealand J. Forest Sci. 10: 72–82.
Gauthier, S., Y. Bergeron &J.-P. Simon. 1993. Cone serotiny in jack pine ontogenetic position and environmental effects. Canad. J. Forest Res. 23: 394–401.
———. 1996. Effects of fire regime on the serotiny level of jack pine. J. Ecol. 84: 539–548.
Gebre, G. M. &M. R. Kuhns. 1991. Seasonal and clonal variations in drought tolerance ofPopulus deltoides. Canad. J. Forest Res. 21: 910–916.
— &J. R. Brandie. 1994. Organic solute accumulation and dehydration tolerance in three water stressedPopulus deltoides clones. Tree Physiol.14: 575–587.
Geiger, D. R., K. E. Koch &W. J. Shieh. 1996. Effect of environmental factors on whole plant assimilate partitioning and associated gene expression. J. Exp. Bot. 47: 1229–1238.
George, A. S. 1981. The genusBanksia L.f. (Proteaceae). Nuytsia 3: 239–474.
Gill, A. M. 1976. Fire and the opening ofBanksia ornata F. Muell. follicles. Austral. J. Bot. 24: 329–335.
—. 1981. Adaptive responses of Australian vascular plant species to fires. Pp. 243–272in A. M. Gill, R. H. Groves & I. R. Noble (eds.), Fire and the Australian biota. Austral. Acad. Sci., Canberra.
— &R. H. Groves. 1980. Fire regimes in heathlands and their plant-ecological effects. Pp. 61–84in R. L. Specht (ed.), Heathlands and related shrublands. Ecosystems of the world, 9B. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Girona, J., M. Mata, D. A. Goldhamer, R. S. Johnson &T. J. DeJong. 1993. Patterns of soil and tree water status and leaf functioning during regulated deficit irrigation scheduling in peach. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 118: 580–586.
Givnish, T. J. 1981. Serotiny, geography and fire in the pine barrens of New Jersey. Evolution 35: 101–123.
Gongolly, S. R., R. Singh, S. L. Katyal &D. Singh. 1957. The mango. ICAR, New Delhi.
Gonzalez-Benito, M. E. &C. Perez-Ruiz. 1992. Cryopreservation ofQuercus faginea embryonic axes. Cryobiology 29: 685–690.
Goode, J. E. 1975. Water storage, water stress and crop responses to irrigation. Pp. 51–62in H. C. Pereira (ed.), Climate and the orchard. Commonw. Bur. Hort. & Plantation Crops, Res. Rev. No. 3. Commonw. Agric. Bur., Farnham Royal, UK
— &K. H. Higgs. 1973. Water, osmotic and pressure potential relationships in apple leaves. J. Hort. Sci. 48: 203–215.
— &K. J. Hyrycz. 1964. The response of Laxton’s Superb apple trees to different soil moisture conditions. J. Hort. Sci. 39: 254–276.
— &J. Ingram. 1971. The effect of irrigation on the growth, cropping, and nutrition of Cox’s Orange Pippin apple trees. J. Hort. Sci. 46: 195–208.
Gosling, P. G. 1991. Beechnut storage: A review and practical interpretation of the scientific literature. Forestry (Oxford) 64: 51–59.
— &P. Rigg. 1990. The effect of moisture content and prechill duration on the efficiency of dormancy breakage in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) seed. Seed Sci. & Technol. 18: 337–343.
Grace, J. 1987. Climatic tolerance and distribution of plants. New Phytol. 106 (Suppl.): 113–130.
—. 1988. Temperature as a determinant of plant productivity. Pp. 91–107in S. P. Long & F. I. Woodward (eds.), Plants and temperature. Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of Cambridge, Cambridge.
Grace, J. D., C. Malcolm &I. K. Bradbury. 1975. The effect of wind and humidity on leaf diffusive resistance in Sitka spruce seedlings. J. Appl. Ecol. 12: 931–940.
Grant, B. W. W., K. Shelton &H. W. Pritchard. 1983. Orthodox behaviour of oil palm seed and cryopreservation of the excised embryo for genetic conservation. Ann. Bot. (London), n.s., 52: 381–384.
Gratkowski, H. 1974. Origin of mountain whitethorn brush fields on burns and cuttings in Pacific Northwest forests. Proc. Western Soc. Weed Sci. 27: 5–8.
Greer, D. H. 1983. Temperature regulation of the development of frost hardiness inPinus radiata. Austral. J. Pl. Physiol. 10: 539–547.
— &C. J. Stanley. 1985. Regulation of the loss of frost hardiness inPinus radiata by photoperiod and temperature. Pl. Cell Environ. 8: 111–116.
— &I. J. Warrington. 1982. Effect of photoperiod, night temperature, and frost incidence on development of frost hardiness inPinus radiata. Austral. J. Pl. Physiol. 9: 333–342.
—,C. J. Stanley &I. J. Warrington. 1989. Photoperiod control of the initial phase of frost hardiness development inPinus radiata. Pl. Cell Environ. 12: 661–665.
Grierson, W., J. Soule &K. Kawada. 1982. Beneficial aspects of physiological stress. Hort. Rev. 4: 247–271.
Griffin, A. R., P. Whiteman, T. Rudge, I. P. Burgess &M. Moncur. 1993. Effect of paclobutrazol on flower-bud production and vegetative growth in two species ofEucalyptus. Canad. J. Forest Res. 23: 640–647.
Grochowska, M. J. 1973. Comparative studies on physiological and morphological features of bearing and non-bearing spurs of the apple tree, I. Changes in starch content during growth. J. Hort. Sci. 48: 347–356.
Gucci, R., L. Lombardini &M. Tattini. 1997. Analysis of leaf water relations of two olive (Olea europaea) cultivars differing in tolerance to salinity. Tree Physiol. 17: 13–21.
Guerrero, F. D. &J. E. Mullet. 1988. Reduction of turgor induces rapid changes in leaf translatable RNA. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 88: 401–408.
Guicherd, P., J. P. Peltier, E. Gout, R. Bligny &G. Marigo. 1997. Osmotic adjustment inFraxinus excelsior L.: Malate and mannitol accumulation in leaves under drought conditions. Trees 11: 155–161.
Gusta, L. V. &C. J. Weiser. 1972. Nucleic acid and protein changes in relation to cold acclimation and freezing injury of Korean boxwood leaves. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 49: 91–96.
Gutsell, S. L. &E. A. Johnson. 1993. A heat budget model for opening of serotinous cones inPinus banksiana andPinus contorta var.latifolia. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Amer. 74(Suppl.): 261.
Gutteridge, C. G. &I. G. Montgomerie. 1971. Survival of strawberry plants during and after cold storage. Hort. Res. (Edinburgh) 11: 52–59.
Hahn, G. G., C. Hartley &A. S. Rhoads. 1920. Hypertrophied lenticels on roots of conifers and their relation to moisture and aeration. J. Agric. Res. 20: 253–265.
Hale, C. R. &R. J. Weaver. 1962. The effect of developmental stage on direction of translocation of photosynthate inVitis vinifera. Hilgardia 33: 89–131.
Hall, A. E., S. E. Camacho-B. &M. R. Kaufmann. 1975. Regulation of water loss by Citrus leaves. Physiol. Pl. 33: 62–65.
Hall, G. C. &R. E. Farmer Jr. 1971.In vitro germination of black walnut pollen. Canad. J. Bot. 49: 799–802.
Hance, B. A. &J. M. Bevington. 1992. Changes in protein synthesis during stratification and dormancy release in embryos of sugar maple (Acer saccharum). Physiol. Pl. 86: 365–371.
Hänninen, H. &R. Backman. 1994. Rest break in Norway spruce seedlings: Test of a dynamic temperature response hypothesis. Canad. J. Forest Res. 24: 558–563.
Harlow, W. M., W. A. Coté Jr. &A. C. Day. 1964. The opening mechanism of pine cone scales. J. Forest. 62: 538–540.
Harrington, J. F. 1970. Seed and pollen storage for conservation of plant gene resources. Pp. 501–521in O. H. Frankel & E. Bennett (eds.), Genetic resources in plants: Their exploration and conservation. Blackwell, Oxford.
—. 1972. Seed storage and longevity. Pp. 145–240in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Seed biology. Vol. 3. Insects, and seed collection, storage, testing, and certification. Academic Press, New York.
Hart, M. L., J. E. Wentworth &J. P. Bailey. 1994. The effects of tree height and weather variables on recorded pollen concentration at Leicester. Grana 33: 100–103.
Hatton, T. T., P. L. Davis, R. H. Cubbedge &K. A. Munroe. 1981. Temperature management and carbon dioxide treatments that reduce chilling injury in grapefruit stored at low temperatures, Proc. Int. Soc. Citric. 1: 728–731.
Havaux, M. 1993. Characterization of thermal damage to the photosynthetic electron transport system in potato leaves. Pl. Sci. (Elsevier)94: 19–33.
Heckathorn, S. A.,C. A. Downs, T. D. Sharkey &J. S. Coleman. 1998. The small, methionine-rich chloroplast heat-shock protein protects photosystem II electron transport during heat stress. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 116: 439–444.
Heide, O. M. 1993a. Daylength and thermal time responses of budburst during dormancy release in some northern deciduous trees. Physiol. Pl. 88: 531–540.
— 1993b. Dormancy release in beech buds (Fagus sylvatica) requires both chilling and long days. Physiol. Pl. 89: 187–191.
Hellmers, H. 1962. Physiological changes in stored pine seedlings. Tree Planter’s Notes 53: 9–10.
Hennessey, T. C., P. Dougherty, S. Kossuth &J. Johnson (eds.). 1986. Stress physiology and forest productivity. M. Nijhoff, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
Hewett, E. W. &C. J. Thompson. 1988. Modified atmosphere storage for reduction of bitter pit in some New Zealand apple cultivars. New Zealand J. Exp. Agric. 16: 271–278.
Hilgeman, R. H. &W. Reuther. 1967. Evergreen tree fruits. Amer. Soc. Agron. Monogr. 11: 704–718.
Hinckley, T. M., F. Duhme, A. R. Hinckley &H. Richter. 1980. Water relations of drought hardy shrubs: Osmotic potential and stomatal reactivity. Pl. Cell Environ. 3: 131–140.
Hocking, D. 1972. Nursery practices in cold storage of conifer seedlings in Canada and the United States: A survey. Tree Planter’s Notes 73(2): 26–29.
— &R. D. Nyland. 1971. Cold storage of coniferous seedlings: A review. AFRI Res. Rept. No. 6. Appl. Forest. Res. Inst., Coll. of Forestry at Syracuse, NY.
Hook, D. D. 1984. Adaptations to flooding with fresh water. Pp. 265–294in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Flooding and plant growth. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
— &C. L. Brown. 1973. Root adaptations and relative flood tolerance of five hardwood species. Forest Sci. 19: 225–229.
Hosner, J. F. 1962. The southern bottomland region. Pp. 296–333in J. W. Barrett (ed.), Regional silviculture of the United States. Ronald Press, New York.
Houck, L. G., J. F. Jenner &J. Bianchi. 1990. Holding lemon fruit at 5°C or 15°C before cold treatment reduces chilling injury. HortScience 25: 1174.
Howell, G. S. &C. J. Weiser. 1970. The environmental control of cold acclimation in apple. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 45: 390–394.
Hulbert, C., E. A. Funkhouser, E. J. Soltes &R. J. Newton. 1988. Inhibition of protein synthesis in loblolly pine hypocotyls by mannitol-induced water stress. Tree Physiol. 4: 19–26.
Ibrahim, L. M., F. Proe &A. D. Cameron. 1997. Main effects of nitrogen supply, and drought stress upon whole plant carbon allocation in poplar. Canad. J. Forest Res. 27: 1413–1419.
Ichikawa, S., K. Kaji &Y. Kubota. 1970. Studies on the storage of larch (Larix leptolepis) pollen at superlow temperatures. Bull. Hokkaido For. Exp. Sta. 8: 11.
Ingle, M. &M. C. D’Souza. 1989. Physiology and control of superficial scald of apples: A review. HortScience 24: 28–31.
Insley, H. &G. P. Buckley. 1985. The influence of desiccation and root pruning on the survival and growth of broadleaved seedlings. J. Hort. Sci. 60: 377–387.
Irving, D. E. &J. H. Drost. 1987. Effects of water deficits on vegetative growth, fruit growth, and fruit quality in Cox’s Orange Pippin apple. J. Hort. Sci. 62: 427–432.
Iwasaki, T., A. Awada &Y. Tiya. 1959. Studies on the differentiation and development of the flower bud in citrus. Bull. Tokai-Kinki Agric. Exp. Hort. Sta. 5: 1–76.
Jackson, M. B. &W. Armstrong. 1999. Formation of aerenchyma and the processes of plant ventilation in relation to soil flooding and submergence. Pl. Biol. 1: 274–287.
— &M. C. Drew. 1984. Effects of flooding on growth and metabolism of herbaceous plants. Pp. 47–128in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Flooding and plant growth. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Jager, A., K. A. Strydom &J. Van Staden. 1996. The effect of ethylene, octanoic acid and a plant derived smoke extract on the germination of light sensitive lettuce seeds. Pl. Growth Regulation 19: 197–201.
Jensen, K. F. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1975. Absorption and translocation of sulfur dioxide by seedlings of four forest tree species. J. Environ. Qual. 4: 379–381.
Jett, J. B. &L. J. Frampton Jr. 1990. Effect of rehydration onin vitro germination of loblolly pine pollen. Southern J. Appl. Forest.14: 48–51.
Johansson, I., C. Larsson, B. Ek &P. Kjellbom. 1996. The major integral proteins of spinach leaf plasma membranes are putative aquaporins and are phosphorylated in response to Ca2+ and apoplastic water potential. Pl. Cell 8: 1181–1191.
—,M. Karlsson, V. K. Shukla, M. J. Chrispeels, C. Larsson &P. Kjellbom. 1998. Water transport activity of the plasma membrane aquaporin pm28a is regulated by phosphorylation. Pl. Cell 10: 451–459.
Johnson, E. A. &S. L. Outsell. 1993. Heat budget and pine behaviour associated with the opening of serotinous cones in twoPinus species. J. Veg. Sci. 4: 745–750.
Johnson, J. D. 1982. The effects of photoperiod during cold storage on the survival and growth of loblolly pine seedlings. Pp. 401–408in Proceedings of the 2d Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. U.S. Forest Serv., Gen. Tech. Rept. SE-24. Southeastern Forest Exp. Sta., Asheville, NC.
— &W. K. Ferrell. 1983. Stomatal response to vapour pressure deficit and the effect of plant water stress. Pl. Cell Environ. 6: 451–456.
Johnson, J. S. &E. A. Johnson. 1994. Opening of semi-serotinous cones ofPicea mariana by fire and ambient heating. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Amer. 75: 123.
Joly, R. J. &J. B. Zaerr. 1987. Alteration of cell-wall water content and elasticity in Douglas-fir during periods of water deficit. Pl. Physioi. (Lancaster) 83: 418–422.
Jones, H. G. 1987. Repeat flowering in apple caused by water stress or defoliation. Trees 1: 135–138.
—,T. J. Flowers &M. B. Jones. 1989. Plants under stress: Biochemistry, physiology, and ecology and their application to plant improvement. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
Jorgensen, J. 1990. Conservation of valuable gene resources by cryopreservation in some forest tree species. J. Pl. Physiol. 136: 373–376.
Justice, O. L. &L. N. Bass. 1978. Principles and practices of seed storage. USDA Agric. Handb. 506. U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Kandiko, R. A., R. Timmis &J. Worrall. 1980. Pressure-volume curves of shoots and roots of normal and drought conditioned western hemlock seedlings. Canad. J. Forest Res. 10: 10–16.
Käpyla, M. 1984. Diurnal variation of tree pollen in the air in Finland. Grana 23: 167–176.
Katterman, F. (ed.). 1990. Environmental injury to plants. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Katterman, F. 1992. Environmental injury to plants. Pp. 2: 153–162in W. A. Nierenberg (ed.), Encyclopedia of earth system science. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Kawase, M. 1981. Anatomical and morphological adaptation of plants to waterlogging. HortScience 16: 30–34.
Kays, S. J. 1991. Postharvest physiology of perishable plant products. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Keeley, J. E. &W. J. Bond. 1997. Convergent seed germination in South African fynbos and Californian chaparral. Pl. Ecol. 133: 153–167.
— &C. J. Fotheringham. 1997. Trace gas emissions and smoke induced seed germination. Science 276: 1248–1250.
——. 1998. Smoke induced seed germination in California chaparral. Ecology 79: 2320–2336.
— &P. H. Zedler. 1978. Reproduction of chaparral shrubs after fire: A comparison of sprouting and seeding strategies. Amer. Midl. Naturalist 99: 142–161.
Kellomaki, S. &K. Y. Wang. 1996. Photosynthetic responses to needle water potentials in Scots pine after a four year exposure to elevated CO2 and temperature. Tree Physioi. 16: 765–772.
Keyes, M. R. &C. C. Grier. 1981. Aboveand below-ground net production in 40-year-old Douglas-fir stands on low and high productivity sites. Canad. J. Forest Res. 11: 599–605.
Khairi, M. M. A. &A. E. Hall. 1976a. Temperature and humidity effects on net photosynthesis and transpiration of citrus. Physioi. Pl. 36: 29–34.
——. 1976b. Comparative studies of net photosynthesis and transpiration of some citrus species and relatives. Physioi. Pl. 36: 35–39.
Kimmerer, T. W. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1981. Stomatal conductance and sulfur uptake of five clones ofPopulus tremuloides exposed to sulfur dioxide. Pl. Physioi. (Lancaster) 67: 990–995.
King, J. R. 1961. The freeze-drying of pollens. Econ. Bot. 15: 91–98.
King, M. W. &E. H. Roberts. 1979. The storage of recalcitrant seeds: Achievements and possible approaches. Int. Board for Pl. Genet. Resources, Rome.
Klein, J. D., W. S. Conway, B. D. Whitaker &C. E. Sams. 1997.Botrytis cinerea decay in apples is inhibited by postharvest heat and calcium treatments. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 122: 91–94.
Knee, M. &S. G. S. Hatfield. 1981. Benefits of ethylene removal during apple storage. Ann. Appl. Biol. 98: 157–165.
Kobayashi, K. D., L. H. Fuchigami &M. J. English. 1982. Modeling temperature requirements for rest development inCornus sericea. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107: 914–918.
Koppenaal, R. S., T. J. Tschaplinski &S. J. Colombo. 1991. Carbohydrate accumulation and turgor maintenance in seedling shoots and roots of two boreal forest conifers subjected to water stress. Canad. J. Bot. 69: 2522–2528.
Kozlowski, T. T. 1964. Water metabolism in plants. Harper & Row, New York.
-. 1967. Physiological implications in afforestation. Pp. 2: 1304–1316in Proceedings of the 6th World Forestry Congress.
—. 1972a. Shrinking and swelling of plant tissues. Pp. 1–64in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. 3. Plant responses and control of water balance. Academic Press, New York.
—. 1972b. Physiology of water stress. Pp. 229–244in C. M. McKell, J. P. Blaisdell & J. R. Goodin (eds.), Wildland shrubs: Their biology and utilization. U.S. Forest Serv., Gen. Tech. Rept. INT-1. Intermountain Forest & Range Exp. Sta., Ogden, UT.
—. 1976a. Drought resistance and transplantability of shade trees. Pp. 77–90in F. S. Santamour, H. Gerhold & S. Little (eds.), Better trees for metropolitan landscapes. U.S. Forest Serv., Gen. Tech. Rept. NE-22. Northeast Forest Exp. Sta., Newtown Square, PA.
—. 1976b. Water relations and tree improvement. Pp. 307–327in M. G. R. Cannell & F. T. Last (eds.), Tree physiology and yield improvement. Academic Press, New York.
—. 1978. How healthy plants grow. Pp. 19–51in J. G. Horsfall & E. B. Cowling (eds.), Plant disease: An advanced treatise. Vol. 3. How plants suffer from diseases. Academic Press, New York.
— 1979. Tree growth and environmental stresses. Univ. of Washington Press, Seattle.
—. 1980. Impacts of air pollution on forest ecosystems. BioScience 30: 88–93.
—. 1982a. Water supply and tree growth, Part I. Water deficits. Forest. Abstr. 43: 57–95.
—. 1982b. Water supply and tree growth, Part II. Flooding. Forest. Abstr. 43: 145–161.
—. 1983. Reduction in yield of forest and fruit trees by water and temperature stress. Pp. 67–88in C. D. Raper & P. J. Kramer (eds.), Crop reactions to water and temperature stresses in humid, temperate climates. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
—. 1984. Responses of woody plants to flooding. Pp. 129–163in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Flooding and plant growth. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
—. 1992. Carbohydrate sources and sinks in woody plants. Bot. Rev. (Lancaster) 58: 107–222.
-. 1997. Responses of woody plants to flooding and salinity. Tree Physiol. Monogr. No. 1.http: //www.heronpublishing.com/tp/monograph/kozlowski.pdf.
— &H. A. Constantinidou. 1986a. Responses of woody plants to environmental pollution, Part I. Sources, types of pollutants, and plant responses. Forest. Abstr. 47: 5–51.
——. 1986b. Responses of woody plants to environmental pollution, Part II. Factors affecting responses to pollution. Forest. Abstr. 47: 105–132.
— &S. G. Pallardy. 1979. Stomatal responses ofFraxinus pennsylvanica seedlings during and after flooding. Physiol. Pl. 46: 155–158.
——. 1984. Effect of flooding on water, carbohydrate and mineral relations. Pp. 165–193in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Flooding and plant growth. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
——. 1997a. Physiology of woody plants. Ed. 2. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
——. 1997b. Growth control in woody plants. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
—,P. J. Kramer &S. G. Pallardy. 1991. The physiological ecology of woody plants. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Kramer, P. J. &J. S. Boyer. 1995. Water relations of plants and soils. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Kriedemann, P. E. &H. D. Barrs. 1981. Citrus orchards. Pp. 325–417in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. 6. Woody plant communities. Academic Press, New York.
—,B. R. Loveys, G. L. Fuller &A. C. Leopold. 1972. Abscisic acid and stomatal regulation. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 79: 842–847.
Kubiske, M. E. &M. D. Abrams. 1993. Stomatal and nonstomatal limitations of photosynthesis in 19 temperate tree species on contrasting sites during wet and dry years. Pl. Cell Environ. 16: 1123–1129.
Kuhns, M. R., W. W. Stroup &G. M. Gebre. 1993. Dehydration tolerance of 5 bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) seed sources from Texas, Nebraska, Minnesota, and New York. Canad. J. Forest Res. 23: 387–393.
Kulkarni, V. J. 1988. Chemical control of tree vigour and the promotion of flowering and fruiting in mango (Mangifera indica L.) using paclobutrazol. J. Hort. Sci. 63: 557–566.
Kurian, R. M. &C. P. A. Iyer. 1993a. Chemical regulation of tree size in mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv.Alphonso, II. Effects of growth retardants on flowering and fruit set. J. Hort. Sci. 68: 355–360.
Kurian, R. M. &C. P. A. Iyer. 1993b. Chemical regulation of tree size in mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv.Alphonso, III. Effects of growth retardants on yield and quality of fruits. J. Hort. Sci. 68: 361–364.
Kwon, K. W. &S. G. Pallardy. 1989. Temporal changes in tissue water relations of seedlingsof Quercus acutissima, Q. alba, andQ. stellata subjected to chronic water stress. Canad. J. Forest Res. 19: 622–626.
Lakso, A. N. 1979. Seasonal changes in stomatal response to leaf water potential in apple. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104: 58–60.
—,A. S. Geyer &S. G. Carpenter. 1984. Seasonal osmotic relations in apple leaves of different ages. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109: 541–547.
Lamont, B. B. &M. J. Barker. 1988. Seed bank dynamics of a serotinous, fire-sensitiveBanksia species. Austral. J. Bot. 36: 193–204.
—,D. C. LeMaitre, R. M. Cowling &N. J. Enright. 1991. Canopy seed storage in woody plants. Bot. Rev. (Lancaster) 57: 277–317.
Lampinen, B. D., K. A. Shackel, S. M. Southwick, B. Olson &J. T. Yeager. 1995. Sensitivity of yield and fruit quality of French prune to water deprivation at different growth stages. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 120: 139–147.
Landsberg, J. J. &H. G. Jones. 1981. Apple orchards. Pp. 419–469in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. 6. Woody plant communities. Academic Press, New York.
Lang, G. A. 1989. Dormancy: Models and manipulations of environmental/physiological regulation. Pp. 79–98in C. J. Wright (ed.), Manipulation of fruiting. Butterworths, London.
—,J. D. Early, N. J. Arroyave, R. L. Darnell, G. C. Martin &G. W. Stutte. 1985. Dormancy: Toward a reduced universal terminology. HortScience 20: 809–812.
Lanteri, S., P. Belletti &S. Lotito. 1993. Storage of pollen of Norway spruce and different pine species. Silvae Genet. 42: 104–109.
Larcher, W. 1995. Physiologícal plant ecology: Ecophysiology and stress physiology of functional groups. Ed. 3. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Larson, K. D., T. M. DeJong &R. S. Johnson. 1988. Physiological growth responses of mature peach trees to postharvest water stress. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 113: 296–300.
—,B. Schaffer &F. S. Davies. 1991. Flooding, leaf gas exchange and growth of mango in containers. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 116: 156–160.
Lavender, D. P. 1985. Bud dormancy. Pp. 7–15in M. L. Duryea (ed.), Evaluating seedling quality: Principles and predictive abilities of major tests. Forest Res. Lab., Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR.
— &S. G. Stafford. 1985. Douglas-fir seedlings: Some factors affecting chilling requirement, bud activity, and new foliage production. Canad. J. Forest Res. 15: 309–312.
— &P. F. Wareing. 1972. Effects of daylength and chilling on the responses of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) seedlings to root damage and storage. New Phytol. 71: 1055–1071.
Lee, C. W., J. C. Thomas &S. L. Buchmann. 1985. Factors affectingin vitro germination and storage ofJojoba-Simmondsia chinensis pollen. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 110: 671–676.
Lemcoff, J. H., A. B. Guarnaschelli, A. M. Garau, M. E. Bascialli &C. M. Ghersa. 1994. Osmotic adjustment and its use as a selection criterion inEucalyptus seedlings. Canad. J. Forest Res. 24: 2404–2408.
Lev-Yadun, S. 1995. Living serotinous cones inCupressus sempervirens. Int. J. PI. Sci. 156: 50–54.
Levitt, J. 1980. Responses of plants to environmental stresses. Ed. 2. 2 vols. Academic Press, New York.
Li, J. X., X. Q. Wang, M. B. Watson &S. M. Assmann. 2000. Regulation of abscisic acid-induced stomatal closure and anion channels by guard cell AAPK kinase. Science 287: 300–303.
Li, S.-H., J.-G. Huguet, P. G. Schoch &P. Orlando. 1989. Response of peach tree growth and cropping to soil water deficit at various phenological stages of fruit development. J. Hort. Sci. 64: 541–552.
Ligon, F. K., W. E. Dietrich &W. J. Thrush. 1995. Downstream ecological effects of dams. BioScience 45: 183–192.
Lin, T.-P. 1996. Seed storage behaviour deviating from the orthodox and recalcitrant type. Seed Sci. & Technol. 24: 523–532.
—,M.-H. Chen &C.-H. Lin. 1994. Dormancy in seeds ofPhellodendron wilsonii is mediated in part by abscisic acid. Pl. Cell Physiol. 35: 115–119.
Little, E. L., Jr. &K. W. Dorman. 1952. Geographic differences in cone-opening in sand pine. J. Forest. 50: 204–205.
Livingston, G. G. &K. K. Ching. 1967. The longevity and fertility of freeze-dried Douglas-fir pollen. Silvae Genet. 16: 98–101.
Logan, B. A. &R. K. Monson. 1999. Thermotolerance of leaf discs from four isoprene-emitting species is not enhanced by exposure to exogenous isoprene. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 120: 821–825.
Loreto, F. &T. D. Sharkey. 1990. A gas-exchange study of photosynthesis and isoprene emission inQuercus rubra L. Planta 182: 523–531.
Lösch, R. &B. Schenk. 1978. Humidity response of stomata and the potassium content of guard cells. J. Exp. Bot. 29: 781–787.
Lotan, J. E. 1967. Cone serotiny of lodgepole pine near West Yellowstone, Montana. Forest Sci. 13: 55–59.
—. 1976. Cone serotiny: Fire relationships in lodgepole pine. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. 14: 267–278.
Lurie, S., J. D. Klein &R. B. Arie. 1991. Prestorage heat treatment delays development of superficial scald on Granny Smith apples. HortScience 26: 166–167.
Lyons, J. M. &R. W. Breidenbach. 1987. Chilling injury. Pp. 305–326in J. Weichmann (ed.), Postharvest physiology of vegetables. M. Dekker, New York.
Maggs, D. H. 1963. The reduction in growth of apple trees brought about by fruiting. J. Hort. Sci. 38: 119–128.
Maier-Maercker, U. 1998. Dynamics of change in stomatal response and water status ofPicea abies during a persistent drought period: A contribution to the traditional view of plant water relations. Tree Physiol. 18: 211–222.
Mansfield, T. A. &W. J. Davies. 1981. Stomata and stomatal mechanisms. Pp. 315–346in L. G. Paleg & D. Aspinall (eds.), The physiology and biochemistry of drought resistance in plants. Academic Press, Sydney, Australia.
— &O. Majernik. 1970. Can stomata play a part in protecting plants against air pollutants? Environ. Pollut. 1: 149–154.
Marsal, J. &J. Girona. 1997. Effects of water stress cycles on turgor maintenance processes in pear leaves. Tree Physiol. 17: 327–333.
Marschner, H. 1995. Mineral nutrition of higher plants. Ed. 2. Academic Press, London.
Marshall, J. G., J. B. Scarratt &E. B. Dumbroff. 1991. Induction of drought resistance by abscisic acid and paclobutrazol in jack pine. Tree Physiol. 8: 415–421.
Martin, U., S. G. Pallardy &Z. A. Bahari. 1987. Dehydration tolerance of leaf tissues of six woody angiosperm species. Physiol. Pl. 69: 182–186.
Matthews, F. R. &J. F. Kraus. 1981. Pollen storage. Pp. 37–39in E. C. Franklin (ed.), Pollen management handbook. USDA Handbook No. 587. U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Mattson, A. &E. Troeng. 1986. Effects of different overwinter storage regimes on shoot growth and net photosynthetic capacity inPinus sylvestris seedlings. Scand. J. Forest Res. 1: 75–84.
Maurel, C. 1997. Aquaporins and water permeability of plant membranes. Annual Rev. Pl. Physiol. Pl. Molec. Biol. 48: 399–429.
McBride, J. R. &J. Strahan. 1984. Establishment and survival of woody riparian species on gravel bars of an intermittent stream. Amer. Midl. Naturalist 112: 235–245.
McCracken, I. J. 1979a. Changes in the carbohydrate concentration of pine seedlings after cool storage. New Zealand J. Forest Sci. 9: 34–43.
—. 1979b. Packaging and cool storage of tree seedlings. New Zealand J. Forest. 24: 278–287.
McKersie, B. D. &Y. Y. Leshem. 1994. Stress and stress coping in cultivated plants. Kluwer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
McLaughlin, J. M. &D. W. Greene. 1991. Fruit and hormones influence flowering of apple, I. Effect of cultivar. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 116: 446–449.
McMaster, G. S. &P. H. Zedler. 1981. Delayed seed dispersal inPinus torreyana (Torrey pine). Oecologia 51: 62–66.
Meier, C. E., R. J. Newton, J. D. Puryear &S. Sen. 1992. Physiological responses of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings to drought stress: Osmotic adjustment and tissue elasticity. J. Pl. Physiol. 140: 754–760.
Meinzer, F. C. 1982. The effect of vapor pressure on stomatal control of gas exchange in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) saplings. Oecologia 54: 236–242.
—T. M. Hinckley &R. Ceulemans. 1997. Apparent responses of stomata to transpiration and humidity in a hybrid poplar canopy. Pl. Cell Environ. 20: 1301–1308.
Menzel, C. M. 1983. The control of floral initiation in lychee: A review. Sci. Hort. 21: 201–215.
— &D. R. Simpson. 1990. Effect of environment on growth and flowering of lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.). Acta Hort. 275: 161–166.
Mexal, J. G. &D. B. South. 1991. Bareroot seedling culture. Pp. 89–115in M. L. Duryea & P. M. Dougherty (eds.), Forest regeneration manual. Kluwer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
—,R. Timmis &W. G. Morris. 1979. Coldhardiness of containerized loblolly pine seedlings: Its effect on field survival and growth. Southern J. Appl. Forest. 3: 15–19.
Mitchell, P. D., P. H. Jerie &D. J. Chalmers. 1984. The effects of regulated water deficits on pear tree growth, flowering, fruit growth and yield. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109: 604–606.
—,D. J. Chalmers, P. H. Jerie &G. Burge. 1986. The use of initial withholding of irrigation and tree spacing to enhance the effect of regulated deficit irrigation in pear trees. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 111: 854–864.
Mitchum, E. J. &Y. M. Wu. 1993. Prestorage heat treatments for scald control in apples. HortScience 28: 85.
Mochizuki, T. 1962. Studies on the elucidation of factors affecting the decline in tree vigor in apples as induced by fruit load. Bull. Fac. Agric, Hirosaki Univ. 8: 40–124.
Moline, H. E. (ed.). 1984. Postharvest pathology of fruits and vegetables: Postharvest losses in perishable crops. Agric. Exp. Sta., Div. of Agric. & Nat. Resources., Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Monselise, S. P. &A. H. Halevy. 1964. Chemical inhibition and promotion of citrus flower bud induction. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 84: 141–146.
Monson R. K &R. Fall. 1989. Isoprene emission from aspen leaves. The influence of environment and relation to photosynthesis and photorespiration. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 90: 267–274.
Monteith, J. L. 1995. A reinterpretation of stomatal responses to humidity. Pl. Cell Environ. 18: 357–364.
Moody, R. W. &J. B. Jett. 1990. Effects of pollen viability and vigor on seed production of loblolly pine. Southern J. Appl. Forest. 14: 33–38.
Mooney, H. A., W. E. Winner &E. J. Pell (eds.). 1991. Response of plants to multiple stresses. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Moreno-Casasola, P., J. P. Grime &M. I. Martinez. 1994. A comparative study of the effects of fluctuations in temperature and moisture supply on hard coat dormancy in seeds of coastal tropical legumes in Mexico. J. Trop. Ecol. 10: 67–86.
Mori, I. C, N. Uozumi &S. Muto. 2000. Phosphorylation of the inward-rectifying potassium channel KAT1 by ABR kinase inVicia guard cells. Pl. Cell Physiol. 41: 850–856.
Morris, L. L. 1982. Chilling injury of horticultural crops: An overview. HortScience 17: 161–162.
Morse, S. R., P. Wayne, S. L. Miao &F. A. Bazzaz. 1993. Elevated CO2 and drought alter tissue water relations of birch (Betula populifolia Marsh.) seedlings. Oecologia 95: 599–602.
Mott, K. A. &D. F. Parkhurst. 1991. Stomatal responses to humidity in air and helox. Pl. Cell Environ. 14: 509–515.
Muir, P. S. &J. E. Lotan. 1985a. Disturbance history and serotiny ofPinus contorta in western Montana. Ecology 66: 1658–1668.
—— 1985b. Serotiny and life-history ofPinus contorta var.latifolia. Canad. J. Bot. 63: 938–945.
Mullin, R. E. 1966. Overwinter storage of baled nursery stock in northern Ontario. Commonw. Forest. Rev. 45: 224–230.
Murata, K., K. Mitsuoka, T. Hirai, T. Walz, P. Agre, J. B. Heymann, A. Engel &Y. Fujiyoshi. 2000. Structural determinants of water permeation through aquaporin 1. Nature 407: 599–605.
Muthalif, M. M. &L. J. Rowland. 1994. Identification of dehydrin like proteins responsive to chilling in floral buds of blueberry (Vaccinium, sectionCyanococcus). Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 104: 1439–1447.
Myers, B. A. &T. F. Neales. 1986. Osmotic adjustment induced by drought in seedlings of threeEucalyptus species. Austral. J. Pl. Physiol. 13: 597–604.
Naiman, R. J., R. E. Bilby &P. A. Bisson. 2000. Riparian ecology and management in the Pacific coastal rain forest. BioScience 50: 996–1011.
Nelson, E. A. &D. P. Lavender. 1979. The chilling requirement of western hemlock seedlings. Forest Sci. 25: 485–490.
Newsome, R. D., T. T. Kozlowski &Z. C. Tang. 1982. Responses ofUlmus americana seedlings to flooding of soil. Canad. J. Bot. 60: 1688–1695.
Nguyen, A. &A. Laniont. 1989. Variation in growth and osmotic regulation of roots of water-stressed maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) provenances. Tree Physiol. 5: 123–133.
Ni, B. R. &S. G. Pallardy. 1992. Stomatal and nonstomatal limitations to net photosynthesis in seedlings of woody angiosperms. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 99: 1502–1508.
Nilsson, J. E. &G. Eriksson. 1986. Freeze testing and field mortalityof Pinus sylvestris (L.) seedlings in northern Sweden. Scand. J. Forest Res. 1: 205–218.
Nir, I., R. Goren &B. Leshem. 1972. Effects of water stress, gibberellic acid and 2-chloroethyl triethylammonium chloride (CCC) on flower differentiation in Eureka lemon trees. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 97: 774–778.
Noland, T. L. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1979. Influence of potassium nutrition on susceptibility of silver maple to ozone. Canad. J. Forest Res. 9: 501–503.
Norby, R. J. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1982. The role of stomata in sensitivity ofBetula papyrifera Marsh. seedlings to SO2 at different humidities. Oecologia 53: 34–39.
——. 1983. Flooding and SO2-stress interaction inBetula papyrifera andB. nigra seedlings. Forest Sci. 29: 739–750.
O’Mahony, P. J. &M. J. Oliver. 1999. The involvement of ubiquitin in vegetative desiccation tolerance. Pl. Molec. Biol. 41: 657–667.
Office of Technology Assessment 1984. Wetlands: Their use and regulation. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, DC. OTA-O-206.
Omi, S. K., R. Rose &T. E. Sabine. 1991a. Effectiveness of freezer storage in fulfilling the chilling requirement of fall-lifted ponderosa pine seedlings. New Forests 5: 307–326.
—,B. Yoder &R. Rose. 1991b. Fall lifting and long-term freezer storage of ponderosa pine seedlings: Effects on post-storage leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, and root growth potential. Tree Physiol. 8: 315–325.
Osborne, D. J. 1980. Senescence in seeds. Pp. 13–37in K. V. Thimann (ed.), Senescence in plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Osonubi, O. &W. J. Davies. 1978. Solute accumulation in leaves and roots of woody plants subjected to water stress. Oecologia 32: 323–332.
Pallardy, S. G. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1979. Relationships of leaf diffusion resistance ofPopulus clones to leaf water potential and environment. Oecologia 40: 371–380.
——. 1981. Water relationsoiPopulus clones. Ecology 62: 159–169.
—,W. C. Parker, R. K. Dixon &H. E. Garrett. 1982. Tissue water relations of roots and shoots of draughted ectomycorrhizal shortleaf pine seedlings. Pp. 368–373in B. A. Thielges (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh North American Forest Biology Workshop. Univ. of Kentucky, Lexington.
Parfitt, D. E. &A. A. Almehdi. 1983. Cryogenic storage of grape pollen. Amer. J. Enol. Viticult. 34: 227–228.
——. 1984a. Liquid nitrogen storage of pollen from five cultivatedPrunus species. HortScience 19: 69–70.
——. 1984b. Cryogenic storage of olive pollen. Fruit Varieties J. 38: 14–16.
Parker, D., D. Ziberman &K. Moulton. 1991. How quality relates to price in California fresh peaches. Calif. Agric. 45(2): 14–16.
Parker, W. C. &S. G. Pallardy. 1985. Genotypic variation in tissue water relations of leaves and roots of black walnut (Juglans nigra) seedlings. Physiol. PL 64: 105–110.
——. 1988. Pressure-volume analysis of leaves ofRobinia pseudoacacia L. with the sap expression and free transpiration methods. Canad. J. Forest Res. 18: 1211–1213.
——,T. M. Hinckley &R. O. Teskey. 1982. Seasonal changes in tissue water relations of three woody species of theQuercus-Carya forest type. Ecology 63: 1259–1268.
Peltier, J. P. &G. Marigo. 1999. Drought adaptation inFraxinus excelsior L.: Physiological basis of the elastic adjustment. J. PL Physiol. 154: 529–535.
Pence, V. C. 1995. Cryopreservation of recalcitrant seeds. Pp. 29–50in Y. P. S. Bajaj (ed.), Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry. Vol. 32. Cryopreservation of germplasm I. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Pereira, J. S. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1977. Variations among woody angiosperms in response to flooding. Physiol. Pl. 41: 184–192.
Perry, D. A. &J. E. Lotan. 1979. A model of fire selection for serotiny in lodgepole pine. Evolution 33: 958–960.
Perry, T. O. 1971. Dormancy of trees in winter. Science 171: 29–36.
— &C. W. Wang. 1960. Genetic variation in the winter chilling requirement for date of dormancy break forAcer rubrum. Ecology 41: 790–794.
Pezeshki, S. R. 1993. Differences in patterns of photosynthetic responses to hypoxia in flood-tolerant and flood-sensitive tree species. Photosynthetica 28: 423–430.
— &J. L. Chambers. 1985a. Stomatal and photosynthetic response of sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) to flooding. Canad. J. Forest Res. 15: 371–375.
——. 1985b. Responses of cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var.pagodaefolia) seedlings to short-term flooding. Forest Sci. 31: 760–771.
—,J. H. Pardue &R. D. De Laune. 1996. Leaf gas exchange and growth of flood-tolerant and flood-sensitive tree species under low soil redox conditions. Tree Physiol. 16: 453–458.
Pfundt, M. 1909. Der Einfluss der Luftfeuchtigkeit auf die Lebensdauer des Blütenstaubes. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 47: 1–40.
Piringer, A. A. &H. A. Borthwick. 1955. Photoperiodic responses in coffee. Turrialba 5: 72–77.
Poff, I. R., J. D. Allan, M. B. Bain, J. R. Karr, K. L. Prestegaard, B. D. Richter, R. E. Sparks &J. C. Stromberg. 1997. The natural flow regime. BioScience 47: 769–784.
Pollock, M. M., R. J. Naiman &T. A. Hanley. 1998. Plant species richness in forested and emergent wetlands: A test of biodiversity theory. Ecology 79: 94–105.
Poole, D. K. &P. C. Miller. 1978. Water related characteristics of some evergreen sclerophyll shrubs in central Chile. Oecol. Pl. 13: 289–299.
Portlock, C. C., S. R. Shea, J. D. Majer &D. T. Bell. 1990. Stimulation of germination ofAcer pulchella: Laboratory basis for forest management options. J. Appl. Ecol. 27: 319–324.
Powell, G. R. 1977. Biennial strobilus production in balsam fir: A review of its morphogenesis and a discussion of its apparent physiological basis. Canad. J. Forest Res. 7: 547–555.
Priestley, D. A. 1986. Seed aging: Implications for seed storage and persistence in the soil. Comstock Associates, Ithaca, NY.
Pritchard, J. 1994. Tansley review no. 68: The control of cell expansion in roots. New Phytol. 127: 3–26.
— &A. D. Tomos. 1993. Correlating biophysical and biochemical control of root expansion. Pp. 53–72in J. A. C. Smith & H. Griffiths (eds.), Water deficits: Plant responses from cell to community. Bios Scientific Publishers, Oxford.
Pukacka, S. &P. J. C. Kuiper. 1988. Phospholipid composition and fatty acid peroxidation during ageing ofAcer platanoides seeds. Physiol. Pl. 72: 89–93.
Putnam, J. A., G. M. Furnival &J. S. McKnight. 1960. Management and inventory of southern hardwoods. U.S. Forest Serv. Agric. Handb. 181.
Queitsch, C., S. W. Hong, E. Vierling &S. Lindquist. 2000. Heat shock protein 101 plays a crucial role in thermotolerance inArabidopsis. Pl. Cell 12: 479–492.
Rao, I. M., R. E. Sharp &J. S. Boyer. 1987. Leaf magnesium alters photosynthetic response to low water potentials in sunflower. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 84: 1214–1219.
Rasmussen, R. A. 1970. Isoprene: Identified as a forest-type emission to the atmosphere. Environm. Sci. Tech. 4: 667–671.
Regehr, D. L., F. A. Bazzaz &W. R. Boggess. 1975. Photosynthesis, transpiration and leaf conductance ofPopulus deltoides in relation to flooding and drought. Photosynthetica 9: 52–61.
Reich, P. B. &R. Borchert. 1984. Water stress and tree phenology in a tropical dry forest in the lowlands of Costa Rica. J. Ecol. 72: 61–74.
Reid, D. M. &K. J. Bradford. 1984. Effects of flooding on hormone relations. Pp. 195–219in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Flooding and plant growth. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Richardson, C. J. 1995. Wetlands ecology. Pp. 3: 535–550in W. A. Nierenberg (ed.), Encyclopedia of environmental biology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Richardson, E. A., S. D. Seeley &D. R. Walker. 1974. A model for estimating the completion of rest for Redhaven and Elberta peach trees. HortScience 9: 331–332.
Rieger, M. 1995. Offsetting effects of reduced hydraulic conductivity and osmotic adjustment following drought. Tree Physiol. 15: 379–385.
Ritchie, G. A. 1982. Carbohydrate reserves and root growth potential in Douglas fir seedlings before and after cold storage. Canad. J. Forest Res. 12: 905–912.
—. 1984. Effect of freezer storage on bud dormancy release in Douglas fir seedlings. Canad. J. Forest Res. 14: 186–190.
—. 1987. Some effects of cold storage on seedling physiology. Tree Planter’s Notes. 38: 11–15.
—,J. R. Roden &N. Kleyn. 1985. Physiological quality of lodgepole pine and interior spruce seedlings: Effect of lift date and duration of freezer storage. Canad. J. Forest Res. 15: 636–645.
Roberts, D. P., P. Toivonen &S. M. Mclnnis. 1991. Discrete proteins associated with overwintering of interior spruce and Douglas fir seedlings. Canad. J. Bot. 69: 437–441.
Roberts, E. H. 1973. Predicting the storage life of seeds. Seed Sci. & Technol. 1: 499–514.
-& M. W. King. 1980. Storage of recalcitrant seeds. Pp. 39–48in L. A. Withers & J. T. Williams (eds.), Crop genetic resources: The conservation of difficult material. Int. Union Biol. Sciences, Series B 42.
— &R. H. Ellis. 1984. Recalcitrant seeds: Their recognition and storage. Pp. 38–52in J. H. W. Holden & J. T. Williams (eds.), Crop genetic resources: Conservation and evaluation. Allen & Unwin, London.
Roberts, S. W., B. R. Strain &K. R. Knoerr. 1980. Seasonal patterns of leaf water relations in four cooccurring forest tree species: Parameters from pressure-volume curves. Oecologia 46: 330–337.
Robertson, P. A., G. T. Weaver &J. A Cavanaugh. 1978. Vegetation and tree species patterns near the northern terminus of southern floodplain forest. Ecol. Monogr. 48: 249–267.
Ronco, F. 1973. Food reserves of Engelmann spruce planting stock. Forest Sci. 19: 213–219.
Rood, S. B., J. M. Mahoney, D. E. Reid &L. Zim. 1994. Instream flows and the decline of riparian cottonwoods along the St. Mary River, Alberta. Canad. J. Bot. 73: 1250–1260.
Roos, E. E. 1982. Induced genetic changes in seed germplasm during storage. Pp. 409–434in A. A. Khan (ed.), The physiology and biochemistry of seed development, dormancy, and germination. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Rose, R., S. K. Omi, B. Court &K. Yakimchuk. 1992. Dormancy release and growth responses of 3+0 bare root white spruce (Picea glauca) seedlings subjected to moisture stress before freezer storage. Canad. J. Forest Res. 22: 132–137.
Ryugo, K. &L. D. Davis. 1959. The effect of the time of ripening on the starch content of bearing peach branches. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 74: 130–133.
Sakai, A. &W. Larcher. 1987. Frost survival of plants: Responses and adaptation to freezing stress. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
— &C. J. Weiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54: 118–126.
Sale, P. J. M. 1970a. Growth, flowering and fruiting of cacao under controlled soil moisture conditions. J. Hort. Sci. 45: 99–118.
— 1970b. Growth and flowering of cacao under controlled atmospheric relative humidities. J. Hort. Sci. 45: 119–132.
Saliendra, N. Z., J. S. Sperry &J. Comstock. 1995. Influence of leaf water status on stomatal response to humidity, hydraulic conductance and soil drought inBetula occidentalis. Planta 196: 357–366.
Santakumari, M. &G. A. Berkowitz. 1991. Chloroplast volume-cell water relationships and acclimation of photosynthesis to leaf water deficits. Photosynth. Res. 28: 9–20.
Sarvas, R. 1962. Investigations on the flowering and seed crop ofPinus silvestris. Commun. Inst. Forest. Fenn. 53: 1–198.
— 1968. Investigations on the flowering and seed crop ofPicea abies. Commun. Inst. For. Fenn. 67: 1–84.
Schaffer, B. &P. C. Anderson (eds.). 1994. Handbook of environmental physiology of fruit crops. 2 vols. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Schäffner, A. R. 1998. Aquaporin function, structure, and expression: Are there more surprises to surface in water relations? Planta 204: 131–139.
Scholander, P. F., L. Van Dam &S. I. Scholander. 1955. Gas exchange in the roots of mangroves. Amer. J. Bot. 42: 92–98.
Schulze, E.-D., O. L. Lange, U. Buschbom, L. Kappen &M. Evenari. 1972. Stomatal responses to changes in humidity in plants growing in the desert. Planta 108: 259–270.
——,M. Evenari, L. Kappen &U. Buschbom. 1974. The role of air humidity and leaf temperature in controlling stomatal resistance ofPrunus armeniaca L. under desert conditions, I. A simulation of the daily course of stomatal resistance. Oecologia 17: 159–170.
Sedgley, M. &A. R. Griffin. 1989. Sexual reproduction of tree crops. Academic Press, London.
— &J. Harbard. 1993. Pollen storage and breeding system in relation to controlled pollination of four species ofAcacia (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae). Austral. J. Bot. 41: 601–609.
Sciler, J. R. 1985. Morphological and physiological changes in black alder induced by water stress. Pl. Cell Environ. 8: 219–222.
— &B. H. Cozell. 1990. Influence of water stress on the physiology and growth of red spruce seedlings. Tree Physiol. 6: 69–77.
— &J. D. Johnson. 1988. Physiological and morphological responses of three half-sib families of loblolly pine to water-stress conditioning. Forest Sci. 34: 487–495.
Sena Gomes, A. R. & T. T. Kozlowski 1980a. Growth responses and adaptations ofFraxinus pennsylvanica seedlings to flooding. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 66: 267–271.
——. 1980b. Responses ofMelaleuca quinquenvervia seedlings to flooding. Physiol. Pl. 49: 373–377.
——. 1980c. Effects of flooding in growth ofEucalyptus camaldulensis andE. globulus seedlings. Oecologia 46: 139–142.
——. 1980d. Responses ofPinus halepensis seedlings to flooding. Canad. J. Forest Res. 10: 308–311.
——. 1986. Effects of flooding on water relations and growth ofTheobroma cacao var.catongo seedlings. J. Hort. Sci. 61: 265–276.
—— &P. B. Reich. 1987. Some physiological responses ofTheobroma cacao var.catongo seedlings to air humidity. New Phytol. 107: 591–602.
Shalhevet, J. &Y. Levy. 1990. Citrus trees. Pp. 951–986in B. A. Stewart & D. R. Nielsen (eds.), Irrigation of agricultural crops. Amer. Soc. Agron., Madison, WI.
Shalom, N. B., J. Hanzon, J. D. Klein &S. Lurie. 1993. A postharvest heat treatment inhibits cell wall degradation in apples during storage. Phytochemistry 34: 955–958.
Shaltout, A. D. &C. R. Unrath. 1983. Rest completion prediction model for Starkrimson Delicious apples. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 108: 957–961.
Shannon, M. C., C. M. Grieve &L. E. Francois. 1994. Whole-plant response to salinity. Pp. 199–244in R. E. Wilkinson (ed.), Plant-environment interactions. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Sharkey T. D. &E. L. Singsaas. 1995. Why plants emit isoprene. Nature 374: 769.
— &S. Yeh. 2001. Isoprene emission from plants. Annual Rev. Pl. Physiol. Pl. Molec. Biol. 52: 407–436.
—,E. L. Singsaas, P. J. Vanderveer &C. Geron. 1996. Field measurements of isoprene emission from trees in response to temperature and light. Tree Physiol. 16: 649–654.
—,X. Y. Chen &S. Yeh. 2001. Isoprene increases thermotolerance of fosmidomycin-fed leaves. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 125: 2001–2006.
Shaybany, B. &G. C. Martin. 1977. Abscisic acid identification and its quantification in leaves ofJuglans seedlings during waterlogging. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102: 300–302.
Sheriff, D. W. 1977. The effect of humidity on water uptake by, and viscous flow resistance of, excised leaves of a number of species: Physiological and anatomical observations. J. Exp. Bot. 28: 1399–1407.
—. 1979. Stomatal aperture and the sensing of the environment by guard cells. Pl. Cell Environ. 2: 15–22.
Shirazi, A. M. &L. H. Fuchigami. 1995. The relationship of a near-lethal stress on dormancy and stem cold hardiness in red-osier dogwood. Tree Physiol. 15: 275–279.
Sholberg, P. L. &P. D. Haag. 1996. Incidence of postharvest pathogens of stored apples in British Columbia. Canad. J. Pl. Path. 18: 81–85.
Silim, S. N. &D. P. Lavender. 1994. Seasonal patterns and environmental regulation of frost hardiness in shoots of seedlings ofThuja plicata, Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, andPicea glauca. Canad. J. Bot. 72: 309–316.
Singh, L. B. 1948. Studies in biennial bearing, III. Growth studies in the “on” and “off” year trees. J. Hort. Sci. 24: 123–148.
— 1960. The mango: Botany, cultivation, and utilization. Leonard Hill, London.
Sitton, J. W. &M. E. Patterson. 1992. Effect of high carbon dioxide and low oxygen controlled atmospheres on postharvest decays of apples. Pl. Dis. 76: 992–995.
Skreppa, T. 1991. Within-population variation in autumn frost hardiness and its relationship to bud-set and height growth inPicea abies. Scand. J. Forest Res. 6: 353–364.
Smart, R. E. &B. G. Coombe. 1983. Water relations of grapevines. Pp. 137–196in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. 7. Additional woody crop plants. Academic Press, New York.
Smit-Spinks, B., B. T. Swanson &A. H. Markhart. 1985. The effect of photoperiod and thermoperiod on cold acclimation and growth ofPinus sylvestris. Canad. J. Forest Res. 15: 453–460.
Smith, D. W. &N. E. Linnartz. 1980. The southern hardwood region. Pp. 145–230in J. W. Barrett (ed.), Regional silviculture of the United States. Ed. 2. Wiley, New York.
Smith, M. W. &P. L. Ager. 1988. Effects of soil flooding on leaf gas exchange of seedling pecan trees. HortScience 23: 370–372.
Smith, W. K. &T. M. Hinckley (eds.). 1995. Ecophysiology of coniferous forests. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Smock, R. M. 1979. Controlled atmosphere storage of fruits. Hort. Rev. 1: 301–336.
Snyder, B. E. &K. E. Clausen. 1974. Pollen handling. Pp. 75–97in C. S. Schopmeyer (ed.), Seeds of woody plants in the United States. USDA Agric. Handb. 450. U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Somerville, C., J. Browse, J. G. Jaworski &J. B. Ohlrogge. 2000. Lipids. Pp. 456–527in B. B. Buchanan, W. Gruissem & R. L. Jones (eds.), Biochemistry and molecular biology of plants. Amer. Soc. PL PhysioL, Rockville, MD.
Sommer, N. F. 1985. Role of controlled environments in suppression of post harvest diseases. Canad. J. PL Pathol. 7: 331–339.
South, D. B. 1986. Nursery management practices for the southern pines. Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL.
—,J. N. Boyer &L. Bosch. 1985. Survival and growth of loblolly pine as influenced by seedling grade: 13-year results. Southern J. Appl. Forest. 9: 76–81.
Southwick, S. M. &T. L. Davenport. 1986. Characterization of water stress and low temperature effects on flower induction in citrus. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 81: 26–29.
Spalding, D. H. &W. F. Reeder. 1983. Conditioning Tahiti limes to reduce chilling injury. Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 96: 231–232.
Specht, R. L. 1981. Responses to fires in heathlands and related shrublands. Pp. 395–415in A. M. Gill, R. H. Groves & I. R. Noble (eds.), Fire and the Australian biota. Austral. Acad. Sci., Canberra.
Spollen, W. G., R. E. Sharp, I. N. Saab &Y. Wu. 1993. Regulation of cell expansion in roots and shoots at low water potentials. Pp. 37–52in J. A. C. Smith & H. Griffiths (eds.), Water deficits: Plant responses from cell to community. Bios Scientific Publishers, Oxford.
Spotts, R. A. 1984. Environmental modifications for control of postharvest decay. Pp. 67–72in H. E. Moline (ed.), Postharvest pathology of fruits and vegetables: Postharvest losses in perishable crops. Agric. Exp. Sta., Div. of Agric. & Nat. Resources., Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Spremulli, L. 2000. Protein synthesis, assembly and degradation. Pp. 412–454in B. B. Buchanan, W. Gruissem & R. L. Jones (eds.), Biochemistry and molecular biology of plants. Amer. Soc. Pl. Physiol., Rockville, MD.
Stanley, R. G. &E. G. Kirby. 1973. Shedding of pollen and seeds. Pp. 295–340in T. T. Kozlowski (ed.), Shedding of plant parts. Academic Press, New York.
— &H. F. Linskens. 1974. Pollen: Biology, biochemistry, management. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Stanwood, P. C. 1985. Cryopreservation of seed germplasm for genetic conservation. Pp. 199–226in K. K. Kartha (ed.), Cryopreservation of plant cells and organs. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Stein, L. A., G. R. McEachern &J. B. Storey. 1989. Summer and fall moisture stress and irrigation scheduling influence pecan growth and production. HortScience 24: 607–611.
Stewart, J. D., A. Z. Elabidine &P. Y. Bernier. 1995. Stomatal and mesophyll limitations in black spruce seedlings during multiple cycles of drought. Tree PhysioL 15: 57–64.
Stoll, M., B. Loveys &P. Dry. 2000. Hormonal changes induced by partial rootzone drying of irrigated grapevine. J. Exp. Bot. 51: 1627–1634.
Stone, E. C. &G. Juhren. 1951. The effect of fire on the germination ofRhus ovata Wats. Amer. J. Bot. 38: 368–372.
—,J. L. Jenkinson &S. L. Krugman. 1962. Root-regenerating potential of Douglas-fir seedlings lifted at different times of the year. Forest Sci. 8: 288–297.
—,G. H. Schubert, R. W. Benseler, F. J. Baron &S. L. Krugman. 1963. Variation in the rootregenerating potentials of ponderosa pine from four California nurseries. Forest Sci. 9: 217–225.
Stow, J. 1986. Effects of rate of establishment of storage conditions and ethylene removal on the storage performance of a Cox’s Orange Pippin apple. Sci. Hort. 28: 369–378.
— 1988. The effects of high carbon dioxide pretreatments and ethylene removal on the storage performance of apples Cox’s Orange Pippin. Sci. Hort. 35: 89–97.
—. 1990. The effects of removal of ethylene from low oxygen storage atmospheres on the quality of Cox’s Orange Pippin apples. Sci. Hort. 43: 281–290.
Styles, E. D., J. M. Burgess, C. Mason &B. M. Huber. 1982. Storage of seed in liquid nitrogen. Cryobiology 19: 195–199.
Tanaka, Y. & R. Timmis. 1974. Effects of container density on growth and cold hardiness of Douglas-fir seedlings. Pp. 181–186in R. W. Tinus, W. I. Stein & W. E. Balmer (eds.), Proceedings of the North American Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Symposium. Great Plains Agric. Council Publ. 68.
Tang, Z. C. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1982a. Some physiological and morphological responses ofQuercus macrocarpa to flooding. Canad. J. Forest Res. 12: 196–202.
——. 1982b. Physiological, morphological and growth responses ofPlatanus occidentalis seedlings to flooding. Pl. & Soil 66: 243–255.
——. 1982c. Some physiological and growth responses ofBetula papyrifera seedlings to flooding. Physiol. Pl. 55: 415–420.
—— 1983. Responsesof Pinus banksiana andPinus resinosa seedlings to flooding. Canad. J. Forest Res. 13: 633–639.
— 1984. Ethylene production and morphological adaptations of woody plants to flooding. Canad. J. Bot. 62: 1659–1664.
Tardieu, F. &W. J. Davies. 1993. Integration of hydraulic and chemical signalling in the control of stomatal conductance and water status of droughted plants. Pl. Cell Environ. 16: 341–349.
Taylor, M. A., H. V. Davies, S. B. Smith, A. Abruzzese &P. G. Gosling. 1993. Cold-induced changes in gene expression during dormancy breakage in seeds of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). J. Pl. Physiol. 142: 120–123.
Teich, A. H. 1970. Cone serotiny and inbreeding in natural populations ofPinus banksiana andPinus contorta. Canad. J. Bot. 48: 1805–1809.
Teller, A., P. Mathy &J. N. R. Jeffers (eds.). 1992. Responses of forest ecosystems to environmental changes. Elsevier, New York.
Thanos, C. A., S. Marcow, D. Christodoulakis &A. Yannitsaros. 1989. Early post-fire regeneration inPinus brutia forest ecosystems of Samos Island (Greece). Acta Oecol., Oecol. Pl. 10: 79–94.
Thomashow, M. F. 1999. Plant cold acclimation: Freezing tolerance genes and regulatory mechanisms. Annual Rev. Pl. Physiol. Pl. Molec. Biol. 50: 571–599.
Timmis, R. &Y. Tanaka. 1976. Effects of container density and moisture stress on growth and cold hardiness of Douglas-fir seedlings. Forest Sci. 22: 167–172.
— &J. Worrall. 1975. Environmental control of cold acclimation in Douglas-fir during germination, active growth and rest. Canad. J. Forest Res. 5: 464–477.
Tompsett, P. B. 1982. The effect of desiccation on the longevity of seeds ofAraucaria hunsteinii andA. cunninghamii. Ann. Bot. (London), n.s., 50: 693–704.
— 1992. A review of the literature on storage of dipterocarp seeds. Seed Sci. & Technol. 20: 251–267.
Topa, M. A. &K. W. McLeod. 1986a. Responses ofPinus clausa, Pinus serotina, andPinus taeda seedlings to anaerobic solution culture, I. Changes in growth and root morphology. Physiol. Pl. 68: 532–539.
——. 1986b. Aerenchyma and lenticel formation in pine seedlings: A possible avoidance mechanism to anaerobic growth conditions. Physiol. Pl. 68: 540–550.
Towill, L. E. 1985. Low temperature and freeze-vacuum drying preservation of pollen. Pp. 171–198in K. K. Kartha (ed.), Cryopreservation of plant cells and organs. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Triboulot, M. B., J. Pritchard &D. Tomos. 1995. Stimulation and inhibition of pine root growth by osmotic stress. New Phytol. 130: 169–175.
Tschaplinski, T. J. &T. J. Blake. 1989. Water-stress tolerance and late-season organic solute accumulation in hybrid poplar. Canad. J. Bot. 67: 1681–1688.
— &G. A. Tuskan. 1994. Water-stress tolerance of black and eastern cottonwood clones and four hybrid progeny, II. Metabolites and inorganic ions that constitute osmotic adjustment. Canad. J. For. Res. 24: 681–687.
— &G. A. Tuskan. &C. A. Gunderson. 1994. Water stress tolerance of black and eastern cottonwood clones and four hybrid progeny, I. Growth, water relations, and gas exchange. Canad. J. Forest Res. 24: 364–371.
Tsukahara, H. &T. T. Kozlowski. 1985. Importance of adventitious roots to growth of floodedPlatanus occidentalis seedlings. Pl. & Soil 88: 123–132.
Tukey, L. D. 1983. Vegetative control and fruiting on mature apple trees treated with PP-333. Acta Hort. 137: 103–109.
—. 1986. Cropping characteristics of bearing apple trees annually sprayed with paclobutrazol (PP-333). Acta Hort. 179: 481–488.
Tunstall, B. R. &D. J. Connor. 1975. Internal water balance of brigalow (Acacia harpophylla F. Muell.) under natural conditions. Austral. J. Pl. Physiol. 2: 489–499.
Turner, N. C. &M. M. Jones. 1980. Turgor maintenance by osmotic adjustment. Pp. 87–104in N. C. Turner & P. J. Kramer (eds.), Adaptation of plants to water and high temperature stress. Wiley, New York.
Tylkowski, T. 1985. Overcoming of seed dormancy in cherry plumPrunus cerasifera var.divaricata Bailey. Arbor. Kornickie 30: 339–350.
Tyree, M. T., Y. N. S. Cheung, M. E. MacGregor &A. J. B. Talbot. 1978. The characteristics of seasonal and ontogenetic changes in the tissue-water relations ofAcer, Populus, Tsuga andPicea. Canad. J. Bot. 56: 635–647.
Ushirozawa, K. &J. Shibukawa. 1948. On the germination and fertility of apple pollen. J. Jap. Soc. Hort. Sci. 17: 209–211.
Van den Driessche, R. 1969. Influence of moisture supply, temperature, and light on frost-hardiness changes in Douglas-fir seedlings. Canad. J. Bot. 47: 1765–1772.
— 1977. Survival of coastal and interior Douglas fir seedlings after storage at different temperatures, and effectiveness of cold storage in satisfying chilling requirements. Canad. J. Forest Res. 7: 125–131.
— 1979. Respiration rate of cold-stored nursery stock. Canad. J. Forest Res. 9: 15–18.
Van Eerden, E. &J. W. Gates. 1990. Seedling production and processing: Container. Pp. 226–234in D. P. Lavender, R. Parish, C. Johnson, G. Montgomery, A. Vyse, R. A. Willes & D. Winston (eds.), Regenerating British Columbia’s forests. Univ. British Columbia Press, Vancouver.
Vidaver, W. E., W. Binder, R. C. Brooke, G. R. Lister &P. M. A. Toivonen. 1989. Assessment of photosynthetic activity of nursery grownPicea glauca (Moench.) Voss seedlings using an integrating fluorometer to monitor variable chlorophyll fluorescence. Canad. J. Forest Res. 19: 1478–1482.
Vogl, R. J., P. W. Armstrong, K. L. White &K. L. Cole. 1977. The closed-cone pines and cypresses. Pp. 295–358in M. G. Barbour & J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. Wiley, New York.
Wagenbreth, D. 1965. Das Auftreten von zwei Letalstufen bei Hitzeeinwirkung auf Pappelblätter. Flora (Jena) 156A: 116–126.
Waisel, Y. 1972. Biology of halophytes. Academic Press, New York.
— 1991. Adaptation to salinity. Pp. 359–383in A. S. Raghavendra (ed.), Physiology of trees. Wiley, New York.
—A. Eshel &M. Agami. 1986. Salt balance of leaves of the mangroveAvicennia marina. Physiol. Pl. 67: 67–72.
Wakabayashi, K., T. Hoson &S. Kamisaka. 1997. Osmotic stress suppresses cell wall stiffening and the increase in cell wall bound ferulic and diferulic acids in wheat coleoptiles. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 113: 967–973.
Wakeley, P. C. 1954. Planting the southern pines. Agric. Monogr. 18.U.S. Dept. of Agric, Washington, DC.
Walkins, C. B., K. L. McMath, J. H. Bowen, C. J. Brennan, S. L. McMillan &D. P. Billing. 1991. Controlled atmosphere storage of Granny Smith apples. New Zealand J. Crop Hort. Sci. 19: 61–68.
Walser, R. H. &T. D. Davis. 1989. Growth, reproductive development and dormancy characteristics of paclobutrazol-treated tart cherry trees. J. Hort. Sci. 64: 435–441.
Wang, B. S. P., P. J. Charest &B. Downie. 1993.Ex situ storage of seeds, pollen andin vitro culture of perennial woody plants. FAO Forest. Pap. 113. Food & Agric. Org. of the United Nations, Rome.
Wang, C.-Y. 1990. Alleviation of chilling injury in horticultural crops. Pp. 281–302in C.-Y. Wang (ed.), Chilling injury of horticultural crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
— 1993. Approaches to reducing chilling injury of fruits and vegetables. Hort. Rev. 15: 63–95.
Wang, S. Y. &M. Faust. 1994. Changes in the antioxidant system associated with bud break in Anna apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) buds. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 119: 735–741.
Wang, Z. &G. W. Stutte. 1992. The role of carbohydrates in active osmotic adjustment in apple under water stress. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 117: 816–823.
—,B. Quebedeaux &G. W. Stutte. 1995. Osmotic adjustment: Effect of water stress on carbohydrates in leaves, stems and roots of apple. Austral. J. Pl. Physiol. 22: 747–754.
Wardrop, A. B. 1983. The opening mechanism of follicles of some species ofBanksia. Austral. J. Bot. 31: 485–500.
Waring, R. H. 1991. Responses of evergreen trees to multiple stresses. Pp. 371–390in H. A. Mooney, W. E. Winner & E. J. Pell (eds.), Response of plants to multiple stresses. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Wazir, F. K., M. W. Smith &S. W. Akers. 1988. Effects of flooding on phosphorous levels in pecan seedlings. HortScience 23: 595–597.
Webb, D. P. &F. W. Von Althen. 1980. Storage of hardwood planting stock: Effects of various storage regimes and packaging methods on root growth and physiological quality. New Zealand J. Forest Sci. 10: 83–89.
Webster, A. D., J. D. Quinlan &P. J. Richardson. 1986. The influence of paclobutrazol on the growth and cropping of sweet cherry cultivars, I. The effect of annual soil treatments on the growth and cropping of cv.Early Rivers. J. Hort. Sci. 61: 471–478.
Weichmann, J. 1986. The effect of controlled-atmosphere storage on the sensory and nutritional quality of fruits and vegetables. Hort. Rev. 8: 101–127.
White, D. A., C. L. Beadle &D. Worledge. 1996. Leaf water relations ofEucalyptus globulus ssp.globulus andE. nitens: Seasonal, drought and species effects. Tree Physiol. 16: 469–476.
Wildung, D. K., C. J. Weiser &H. M. Pellett. 1973. Temperature and moisture effects on hardening of apple roots. HortScience 8: 53–55.
Williams, G. J., N. E. Pellett &R. M. Klein. 1972. Phytochrome control of growth cessation and initiation of cold acclimation in selected woody plants. Pl. Physiol. (Lancaster) 50: 262–265.
Winjum, J. K. 1963. Effects of lifting date and storage on 2+0 Douglas fir and Noble fir. J. Forest. 61: 648–654.
Winner, W. E., G. W. Koch &H. A. Mooney. 1982. Ecology of SO2 resistance, IV. Predicting metabolic responses of fumigated trees and shrubs. Oecologia 52: 16–21.
Wisniewski, M., J. J. Sauter, V. Stepien &L. H. Fuchigami. 1994. Effects of near lethal heat stress on endodormancy and ecodormancy of peach and hybrid poplar. HortScience 29: 511.
—,R. Arora &T. Artlip. 1995. Seasonal patterns of dehydrin in bark tissue of eight species of woody plants. HortScience 30: 851.
—,L. H. Fuchigami, J. J. Sauter, A. Shirazi &L. Zhen. 1996. Near-lethal stress and bud dormancy in woody plants. Pp. 201–210in G. A. Lang (ed.), Plant dormancy: Physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology. CAB International, Oxford.
—,J. Sauter, L. Fuchigami &V. Stepien. 1997. Effects of near-lethal heat stress on bud break, heat-shock proteins and ubiquitin in dormant poplar (Populus nigra charkowiensis ×P. nigra incrassata). Tree Physiol. 17: 453–460.
Wood, B. W. 1988. Paclobutrazol suppresses shoot growth and influences nut quality and yield of young pecan trees. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 113: 374–377.
Worley, R. E. 1982. Tree yield and nut characteristics of pecans with drip irrigation under humid conditions. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107: 30–34.
Yahia, E. M. 1994. Apple flavor. Hort. Rev. 16: 197–234.
—,F. W. Liu &T. E. Acree. 1990. Changes of some odor-active volatiles in controlled atmosphere-stored apples. J. Food Qual. 13: 185–202.
Yamada, S., T. Komori, P. N. Myers, S. Kuwata, T. Kubo &H. Imaseki. 1997. Expression of plasma membrane water channel genes under water stress inNicotiana excelsior. Pl. Cell Physiol. 38: 1226–1231.
Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, K., M. Koizumi, S. Urao &K. Shinozaki. 1992. Molecular cloning and characterization of 9 cDNAs for genes that are responsive to desiccation inArabidopsis thaliana: Sequence analysis of one cDNA clone that encodes a putative transmembrane channel protein. Pl. Cell Physiol. 33: 217–224.
Yamamoto, F., S. Sakata &K. Tenazawa. 1995. Physiological, morphological and anatomical responses ofFraxinus mandshurica seedlings to flooding. Tree Physiol. 15: 713–719.
Yelenosky, G. 1979. Water-stress induced cold hardening of young citrus trees. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104: 270–273.
Young, E. 1992. Timing of high temperature influences chilling negation in dormant apple shoots. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 117: 271–272.
Young, J. A. &C. G. Young. 1992. Seeds of woody plants in North America. Rev. & enl. ed. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon.
Zaerr, J. B. 1983. Short-term flooding and net photosynthesis in seedlings of three conifers. Forest Sci. 29: 71–78.
Zedler, P. H. 1986. Closed-cone conifers of the chaparral. Fremontia 14(October): 14–17.
Zhang, B. &D. D. Archbold. 1991. Solute accumulation in leaves ofFragaria chiloensis andF. virginiana in response to water deficit stress. HortScience 26: 176.
Zhang, J. &W. J. Davies. 1989. Abscisic acid produced in dehydrating roots may enable the plant to measure the water status of the soil. Pl. Cell Environ. 12: 73–81.
——. 1990. Changes in the concentration of ABA in xylem sap as a function of changing soil water status can account for changes in leaf conductance and growth. Pl. Cell Environ. 13: 277–286.
—,U. Schurr &W. J. Davies. 1987. Control of stomatal behaviour by abscisic acid which apparently originates in the roots. J. Exp. Bot. 38: 1174–1181.
Zwiazek, J. J. &T. J. Blake. 1989. Effects of preconditioning on subsequent water relations, stomatal sensitivity and photosynthesis in osmotically stressed black spruce. Canad. J. Bot. 67: 2240–2246.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kozlowski, T.T., Pallardy, S.G. Acclimation and adaptive responses of woody plants to environmental stresses. Bot. Rev 68, 270–334 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1663/0006-8101(2002)068[0270:AAAROW]2.0.CO;2
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1663/0006-8101(2002)068[0270:AAAROW]2.0.CO;2