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Monitoring trees outside forests: a review

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Abstract

Trees outside forests (TOFs) are an important natural resource that contributes substantially to national biomass and carbon stocks and to the livelihood of people in many regions. Over the last decades, decision makers have become increasingly aware of the importance of TOF, and as a consequence, this tree resource is nowadays often considered in forest monitoring systems. Our review shows that in many cases, TOF are included in national forest inventories, applying traditional methodologies with relatively sparse networks of field sample plots. Only in some countries, such as India, the design of the inventories has considered the special features of how TOFs occur in the landscape. Several research studies utilising remote sensing for monitoring TOF have been conducted lately, but very few studies include comparative studies to optimise sampling strategies for TOF. Our review indicates that methods combining remote sensing and field surveys appear to be very promising, especially when remote sensing techniques that assess both the horizontal and vertical structures of tree resources are applied. For example, two-phase sampling strategies with laser scanning in the first phase and a field survey in the second phase appear to be effective for assessing TOF resources. However, TOFs often exhibit different characteristics than forest trees. Thus, to improve TOF monitoring, there is often a need to develop models, e.g. for biomass assessment, that are specifically adapted to this tree resource. Alternatively, field-based remote sensing methods that provide structural information about individual trees, notably terrestrial laser scanning, could be further developed for TOF monitoring applications. This also would have a potential to reduce the problem of accessing TOF during field surveys, which is a problem, for example, in countries where TOF are present on intensively utilised private grounds like gardens and agricultural fields.

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Notes

  1. European Cooperation in Science and Technology

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Acknowledgments

We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for the valuable suggestions helping to improve an earlier version of the paper.

Compliance with ethical standards

The authors declare that they have followed the rules of good scientific practice. All authors have contributed sufficiently to the scientific work and have followed the ethical standards of Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.

Conflict of interest

The authors further declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skogsmarksgränd, 90183, Umeå, Sweden

    Sebastian Schnell & Göran Ståhl

  2. Chair of Forest Inventory and Remote Sensing, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 5, 37077, Göttingen, Germany

    Christoph Kleinn

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  1. Sebastian Schnell
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  2. Christoph Kleinn
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  3. Göran Ståhl
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Correspondence to Sebastian Schnell.

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Schnell, S., Kleinn, C. & Ståhl, G. Monitoring trees outside forests: a review. Environ Monit Assess 187, 600 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4817-7

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