Table 1.

Types of costs in urban forests.

Type of costExamples
Direct costs (of provisioning and maintaining trees)Planting, pruning, watering, other types of maintenance
Infrastructure interference costsPavement and sewer repair, blockage of signs, tree-initiated power outages
Externality-related costsEmissions of biogenic VOCs, release of carbon dioxide during decomposition, allergies due to pollen release, leaf/debris clean-up
Opportunity costsSpace for trees cannot be used for parking, bike lanes, etc.