Description of papers. PEH (persons experiencing homelessness); LST (land surface temperature); PET (physiological equivalent temperature); mPET (modified physiological equivalent temperature); COMFA (COMfort ForumlA); SDU (subdivided units); GS (green space); UGS (urban green space); UHI (urban heat island); UHIR (urban heat island reduction); PP (pocket parks); IP (interim plazas); POP (privately owned public spaces); GIS (geographic information system).
| Author/year and title | Location | Köppen climate classification | Definition of community engaged | Method of community engagement | Urban greening description or definition | Heat-related health outcome | Summary of findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arifwidodo and Chandrasiri 2020 “Urban heat stress and human health in Bangkok, Thailand” | Bangkok, Thailand, Asia | Tropical savanna climate (Aw) | Residents (n = 505) of Bangkok, Thailand | Questionnaire survey face-to-face with randomly selected registered households from the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration | Parks as a type of green space | Self-reported heat stress and health outcomes | This study evaluated the determinants of heat stress and the effects of heat stress to human health in Bangkok, Thailand, using a survey questionnaire. The results indicated that a significant determinant of heat stress is socioeconomic status, with low-income populations more likely to experience heat stress. Furthermore, respondents who reported heat stress were more likely to have adverse health outcomes. |
| Bai et al. 2013 “Rapid warming in Tibet, China: Public perception, response and coping resources in urban Lhasa” | Lhasa, Tibet, China, Asia | Cold semi-arid climate (BSk) | Residents (n = 619) of urban Lhasa, Tibet | Face-to-face questionnaire surveys of residents previously informed by a Community Committee about the study | Green spaces include green parks and other vegetation | Self-reported presence of heat-related illness (dizziness, tiredness, irritability, thirst, loss of appetite, headaches, nausea, vomiting, and muscle weakness) | This study explored the subjective experiences of heat-related symptoms and behavior changes for residents of Lhasa, Tibet, through a questionnaire survey. The study found that nearly 40% of respondents reported heat-related symptoms, of which risk perception was influenced by sex, age, education, and income. The vast majority of respondents reported changing their behavior on hot days. |
| Callejas and Krüger 2022 “Microclimate and thermal perception in courtyards located in a tropical savannah climate” | Cuiaba, Brazil, South America | Tropical savanna climate (Aw) | Visitors (n = 178) to courtyards in Cuiaba, Brazil | In-person questionnaire survey conducted in 2 courtyards in the historic city center | Greenery in courtyards include palm trees, vines, and other vegetation | Self-reported heat stress and thermal comfort | This study evaluated courtyard morphology and subject thermal perception through microclimate data and a questionnaire survey of courtyard visitors in Cuiaba, Brazil. The findings demonstrated that the geometric shape of the courtyard was significant to provide thermal relief for visitors due to shading and solar access. |
| Cronley et al. 2024 “Persons experiencing homelessness during extreme temperatures: Lessons for promoting socially inclusive adaptive capacity” | Knoxville, TN, USA, North America | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | PEH(n = 42)in Knoxville, TN, USA | Semi-structured interviews that included cross-sectional, semi-structured, and open-ended questions | Green infrastructure includes natural elements such as trees, parks, green roofs, and other green spaces | Self-reported heat-related injuries (e.g., dehydration, heat cramps) | This study explored the lived experiences of PEH during extreme temperatures in Knoxville, TN, USA, through in-depth interviews. The findings revealed barriers to PEH’s adaptive capacity to extreme temperature, such as restricted mobility. The authors recommended the importance of destigmatizing homelessness and designing inclusive green infrastructure. |
| de Guzman et al. 2023 “Cooler and healthier: Increasing tree stewardship and reducing heat-health risk using community-based urban forestry” | Los Angeles, CA, USA, North America | Warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) | Households (n = 116) in Los Angeles County, CA,USA | Pre-and post-intervention mail-back questionnaire survey | Urban greening includes tree planting | Self-reported heat-related health symptoms including headaches, dizziness, tiredness, and nausea/vomiting | This study assessed the impacts of community engagement approaches on values and behaviors related to street tree stewardship and heat-mitigation behaviors in households in Los Angeles County, LA, USA. The study tested a control intervention with community engagement experimental messaging and measured outcomes including tree health and survey responses. The findings demonstrated that intervention messages had little effect on the measured outcomes, but tree stewardship was positively correlated to heat protection measures. |
| Deilami et al. 2022 “Resilience and adaptation strategies for urban heat at regional, city and local scales” | Melbourne, Victoria, Australia | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | Visitors (n = 1,059) of case study sites in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia | In-person questionnaire surveys at study site | Green zones are defined as vegetation. Increasing the “extent of green zones in cities” can look like “planting trees, building parks and gardens and increasing the area of green roofs and walls” | Self-reported thermal comfort | This chapter focused on the experiences of 3 case studies in Australia that are mitigating urban heat island effects. The case studies included satellite imagery, spatial modelling, and community engagement methods to strategize resilience and adaptation strategies for extreme urban heat. The chapter concluded with an emphasis on the importance of both biometeorological conditions and thermal perceptions in urban planning for heat mitigation. |
| Ebenberger and Arnberger 2019 “Exploring visual preferences for structural attributes of urban forest stands for restoration and heat relief” | Vienna, Austria, Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | Users (n = 160) of an urban public green space in Vienna, Austria, that stayed in the park for at least 30 minutes and lived in urban or suburban areas | In-person questionnaire survey including a visual discrete choice experiment that explored user preferences for 4 different forest stand types | Green infrastructure and green space include trees and woodland | Self-reported heat sensitivity and heat stress during periods with high temperatures | This study explored the preferences and trade-offs for structural components of urban forests with heat relief, restoration, and aesthetic preference through a questionnaire survey and discrete choice experiment for park users in Vienna, Austria. The results showed that park users would prefer a less aesthetically pleasing forest structure for the benefit of heat stress relief on hot days. |
| Ehsan et al. 2021 “Thermal discomfort levels, building design concepts, and some heat mitigation strategies in low-income communities of a South Asian city” | Faisalabad, Pakistan, Asia | Hot semi-arid climate (BSh) | Residents in households (n = 52) of low-income communities in Faisalabad, Pakistan | Awareness seminars followed by in-person questionnaire surveys | Greenery includes trees, shrubs, and other vegetation | Self-reported heat-related health issues (e.g., diarrhea, dehydration, headache, fever) | This study assessed thermal discomfort levels, building design concepts, and heat mitigation strategies during adverse heat-related health events in low-income neighborhoods in Faisalabad, Pakistan, through weather station data, the thermal discomfort index, and questionnaire surveys. The study found that heat-mitigation strategies are gender-biased; for example, 52% of males and 28% of females drank more water during dehydration. The study recommended urban greening interventions (trees, open parks) to help mitigate heat-related health complaints. |
| Franck et al. 2013 “Heat stress in urban areas: Indoor and outdoor temperatures in different urban structure types and subjectively reported well-being during a heat wave in the city of Leipzig” | Leipzig, Germany, Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | Residents (n = 127) of Leipzig, Germany | Questionnaire survey delivered in mailboxes and workplaces | Green spaces include trees and other vegetation that reduces temperatures | Self-reported experience of heat stress | This study assessed how types of urban structures are related to urban temperature differences and how indoor temperatures depend on urban housing conditions through remote sensing and household survey data. The study found that green spaces are related to air temperature (more green means lower temperatures), indoor heat island effect corresponds to the outdoor effects, and self-reported heat stress varies according to adaptation behavior. |
| Gabbe et al. 2023 “Reducing heat risk for people experiencing unsheltered homelessness” | Santa Clara County, CA, USA, North America | Warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) | PEH (n = 82) in Santa Clara County, CA, USA | Exploratory interviews (“in-depth” semi-structured [n = 10] and “encampment” community-needs assessment [n = 72]) | Tree canopy and green space associated with reducing heat exposure | Self-reported experiences with extreme heat, including physical health issues (dehydration, dizziness, fainting, etc.) and mental health/substance use issues | This study conducted a mixed methods approach (spatial analyses and interviews) to understand heat-related health exposure and risk to unhoused people. The study found that PEH often preferred to live in places with more stability but which tended to have less access to shade, water, and other cooling resources. |
| Giannakis et al. 2016 “Linear parks along urban rivers: Perceptions of thermal comfort and climate change adaptation in Cyprus” | Nicosia, Cyprus, Europe | Hot semi-arid climate (BSh) and Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) | Visitors (n = 305) to a park in Nicosia, Cyprus, on hot summer days | In-person questionnaire survey at Pedieos Park | Nature-based solutions include “green roofs and walls, street trees, and green areas and corridors” | Self-reported thermal comfort | This study explored the perceptions and satisfaction of thermal conditions in a park in Nicosia, Cyprus, on hot summer days through questionnaire surveys and micrometeorological measurements. The results indicated that 84% of visitors were satisfied with the cooling effect of the park, yet there were discrepancies between the observed thermal comfort index and people’s perceptions, indicating that people in semi-arid environments were adapted to the hot climatic conditions. |
| Guardaro et al. 2020 “Building community heat action plans story by story: A three neighborhood case study” | Phoenix, AZ, USA, North America | Hot desert climate (BWh) | Residents (n = 200) of 3 metropolitan Phoenix, AZ, USA, neighborhoods chosen due to factors such as high urban heat exposure and sensitivity, strong community identity, and entrenched community-based organizations | Nature’s Cooling Systems community engagement methodology to engage, design, plan, and implement through educational meetings, design workshops, and heat action planning | Urban heat interventions include increasing tree and vegetation cover, as well as green roofs, and other green infrastructure projects | Self-reported thermal comfort and public health outcomes due to extreme heat assessed over time through continuous community engagement | This transdisciplinary study developed a methodology to engage heat-vulnerable populations in the co-creation of urban heat interventions through a case study in metropolitan Phoenix, AZ, USA. The result of cross-sector collaboration and participatory research was a community co-created heat action plan which recommends contextual neighborhood action, reinforcements of social networks, and implementation of policies that will advance heat adaptation. |
| Heng and Chow 2019 “How ‘hot’ is too hot? Evaluating acceptable outdoor thermal comfort ranges in an equatorial urban park” | Singapore, Asia | Tropical rainforest (Af) | Park visitors (n = 1,508) of the Singapore Botanic Gardens in both the winter and summer monsoon months | In-person questionnaire survey at study site | Urban greenery defined as “street trees, parks, and rooftop gardens” that “offer important provisional, support, cultural and regulatory ecosystem services” | Self-reported thermal (dis)comfort and physiological thermal stress | This study analyzed the outdoor thermal comfort of park users in Singapore to determine specific temperature ranges for (1) neutral, (2) acceptable, and (3) preferred temperatures through questionnaire responses and microclimate measurements. The findings demonstrated that the preferred ideal temperature for all residents is 24.2 °C, and changes between respondents were most likely due to differences in acclimatization. |
| Hopkins et al. 2022 “A simple tree planting framework to improve climate, air pollution, health, and urban heat in vulnerable locations using non-traditional partners” | Houston, TX, USA, North America | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Environmental community leaders and other community partners in Houston, TX, USA | Series of engagement/education meetings, luncheons, lectures, webinars, video and in-person forums, and on-site tree species demonstrations | Green infrastructure includes urban trees and native tree species were selected according to their known ecosystem services | Rates of cardiac arrests and asthma attacks | This study adopted a multidisciplinary framework to adopt an evidence-based tree planting plan to improve climate adaptations and health outcomes in vulnerable neighborhoods in Houston, TX, USA. The framework included the identification of optimal native tree species for climate change adaptation and mitigation, the selection of vulnerable locations, and the engagement of multisectoral leadership for implementation. The result of this multidisciplinary project was the eventual planting of thousands of optimal native trees in vulnerable locations. |
| Huanchun et al. 2021 “Urban green space optimization based on a climate health risk appraisal—A case study of Beijing city, China” | Beijing, China, Asia | Hot summer humid continental climate (Dwa) | Residents (n = 380) of Beijing, China | In-person questionnaire survey | Green spaces described as vegetation that cools | Self-reported experiences of emotional health outcomes on hot days and mortality rates related to respiratory and cardiovascular disease on hot days | This study evaluated how Beijing’s thermal environment influenced the health of residents through spatial modelling (satellite images, electronic maps, questionnaire survey data, numerical analysis). The findings showed areas in Beijing with greater urban heat island effects on respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, and emotional health, and simulated interventions to reduce health risks (e.g., cooling nodes, green rings, pergolas). |
| Jenerette et al. 2016 “Micro-scale urban surface temperatures are related to land-cover features and residential heat related health impacts in Phoenix, AZ USA” | Phoenix, AZ, USA, North America | Hot desert climate (BWh) | Random sample of residents (n = 806) in Phoenix, AZ, USA | Phoenix Area Social Survey (PASS) conducted online, by telephone, or in person | Vegetated land cover including trees, grass, and green roofs mitigate land surface temperature | Self-reported health outcomes due to heat, including leg cramps, dry mouth, dizziness, fatigue, fainting, rapid heartbeat, or hallucinations | This study linked thermal imagery of Phoenix, AZ, USA, with social survey data on perceptions of heat illness to examine whether neighborhood LST characteristics correspond to residents’ self-reported symptoms of heat-related illness. The results demonstrated that symptoms of heat-related illness were correlated with LST patterns during the daytime, but not during the nighttime. |
| Kabisch et al. 2021 “Impact of summer heat on urban park visitation, perceived health and ecosystem service appreciation” | Leipzig, Germany, Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | Visitors (n = 176) of 2 inner-city parks in Leipzig, Germany, on hot summer days | In-person questionnaire survey at study site | Urban green space includes “forests, parks, cemeteries, and allotment gardens” | Self-reported health impairment during heat waves (e.g., exhaustion, concentration problems, sleep problems, headache, cardiovascular problems, and heat stress) | This study examined the perceptions of park visitors in Leipzig, Germany, on heat-related health impairment and activity patterns on hot days and the role of parks in coping with heat stress. The results demonstrated that visitors of the park with fewer trees and greenspace had significantly higher heat-related health impairment and had to adjust their visiting behavior accordingly. |
| Karimi and Mohammad 2022 “Effect of outdoor thermal comfort condition on visit of tourists in historical urban plazas of Sevilla and Madrid” | Seville and Madrid, Spain, Europe | Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) and Cold semi-arid climate (BSk) | Tourist visitors (n = 180) to outdoor plazas in Seville and Madrid, Spain, on hot days | In-person questionnaire survey at study sites | Vegetation cover including trees | Self-reported thermal comfort sensation and mental condition | This study assessed the thermal comfort of tourist visitors in urban plazas in Seville and Madrid, Spain, through microclimatic measurements, questionnaire surveys, and simulation results. The findings demonstrated that the outdoor thermal comfort range for tourists varied from 28.42 to 30.87 °C in Seville and 24.5 to 29.82 °C in Madrid. A comparison between the simulation results and the questionnaire demonstrated that, as expected, urban plazas with relatively high thermal stresses had higher self-reported thermal discomfort scores. |
| Kilbourne et al. 1982 “Risk factors for heatstroke: A case-control study” | St. Louis and Kansas City, MO, USA, North America | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Persons with heatstroke (n = 156) and persons without (n = 462) in Saint Louis and Kansas City, MO, USA | Questionnaire survey of patients with heatstroke and patients without (control) matched by age, sex, and neighborhood of residence. Whenever possible, interviews were conducted in person with patients or surviving family members | Trees and shrubbery described as a risk factor for nonfatal heatstroke | Assessed risk factors associated with heatstroke in patients presenting temperatures measured anywhere on the body greater than or equal to 41.1 °C, temperature greater than or equal to 40.6 °C if altered mental status or anhidrosis was also present, and those pronounced dead on arrival if body temperature was greater than or equal to 41.1 °C | This study conducted a case-control study in St. Louis and Kansas City, MO, USA, of patients presenting with heatstroke and matched with control subjects to assess the risk factors associated with heatstroke. The study found that there were 6 main risk factors associated with nonfatal heatstroke, including extent of tree and shrubbery growth around the residence. |
| Kumar and Sharma 2022 “Assessing outdoor thermal comfort conditions at an urban park during summer in the hot semi-arid region of India” | Haryana, India, Asia | Hot semi-arid climate (BSh) | Park visitors (n = 55) in Haryana, India, in the summer months | In-person questionnaire survey at study site | Green urban open space, greenery, and green infrastructure can include urban parks and vegetation | Self-reported thermal comfort and thermal sensation | This study assessed the thermal comfort conditions of residents in an urban park in Haryana, a hot semi-arid city in India, through microclimate monitoring and questionnaire surveys. The findings demonstrated that the majority of visitors had thermal sensations between “slightly cool” to “slightly warm” which demonstrated the cooling present in the park. The neutral physiological equivalent temperature was found to be 24.04 to 37.5 °C. |
| Lafortezza et al. 2009 “Benefits and well-being perceived by people visiting green spaces in periods of heat stress” | Gateshead, England, United Kingdom; and Milan and Bari, Italy; Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) and Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Random sample of visitors (n = 800) to green spaces in Italy (n = 400) and the United Kingdom (n = 400) | In-person questionnaire survey at study sites | Green space defined as “city parks, urban woodlands, street trees, rooftop gardens, and vertical greening on buildings” | Self-reported psychological benefits (e.g., reduced depression, enhanced vigor, balanced feelings), and physical benefits (improving respiration, strength, metabolism) perceived during and after the visit on a hot summer day | This study assessed the question of whether green space visitors in Italy and the United Kingdom perceive benefits and enhance their well-being by visiting green spaces during periods of intense heat through structured interviews. The results indicated that both the time spent in green spaces and the number of times green space was visited significantly improved perceived benefits and well-being during periods of extreme heat. |
| Lam et al. 2024 “Effects of perceived environmental quality and psychological status on outdoor thermal comfort: A panel study in Southern China” | Guangzhou, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | College students (n = 14) from Guangzhou, China | In-person questionnaire survey for thermal walk experiment where participants were asked to fill out the survey questions at each stop along the thermal walk | Urban green space includes vegetation in cities such as trees and wetlands | Self-reported thermal comfort including psychological status, an early warning signal to morbidity and mortality linked to thermal stress | This study examined the perceived environmental quality and psychological status on outdoor thermal comfort for college students in Guangzhou, China, through “thermal walk” experiments. The findings demonstrated that psychological status (e.g., higher irritability or tiredness) was associated with higher levels of thermal discomfort and highlighted the need to consider different indicators of psychological status due to urban heat. |
| Lanza et al. 2023 “Heat vulnerability of Latino and Black residents in a low-income community and their recommended adaptation strategies: A qualitative study” | Austin, TX, USA, North America | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Adult residents (n = 18) in Austin, TX, USA, from economically disadvantaged backgrounds | Semi-structured qualitative interviews | Green areas such as parks that include trees, vegetation, rivers, and lakes | Self-reported heat-related health outcomes including physical health (e.g., heat stress, fatigue, headaches, nausea, dizziness, breathing troubles, physical inactivity) and mental health and well-being (e.g., anxiety, stress, social relationships) | This study explored the heat-related health and well-being outcomes, vulnerability, and adaptation strategies for a low-income community of color in Austin, TX, USA, through semi-structured qualitative interviews. The study clarified the most common heat-related health outcomes perceived by residents, as well as those who they perceived to be the most sensitive to heat (children, people with diabetes and hypertension). Additionally, the study found that heat exposure was primarily experienced outdoors, and perceived barriers to adapting to heat included a lack of greenspace and energy cost barriers. |
| Li et al. 2023 “Elderly residents’ uses of fragmented outdoor spaces in public housing estates in Hong Kong—Decoding causality and heat-risk exposure” | Hong Kong, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Elderly users (n = 33,970) of open/semi-open spaces in public housing estates in Hong Kong | In-person questionnaire survey at study site | Green space such as urban parks that include greenery such as trees | Self-reported thermal perceptions/comfort | This study explored the heat risk exposure, “fragmented” open space use, and subjective thermal perceptions of elderly residents in public housing estates in Hong Kong through physical microclimate measurements, passive observation, and questionnaire surveys. The findings demonstrated that the elderly prefer to visit open spaces near their home, and that open spaces that maintained an mPET between 30.8 and 33.1 °C provided thermal safety. |
| Li et al. 2022 “Summer outdoor thermal perception for the elderly in a comprehensive park of Changsha, China” | Changsha, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Elderly (older than 60 years) visitors (n = 319) of a park in subtropic city Changsha, China | In-person questionnaire survey at study site | Urban greenery (trees, other plants) is often found in urban parks and other outdoor spaces | Self-reported thermal sensation, thermal comfort, and thermal acceptability | This study investigated the thermal perception (thermal comfort, thermal sensation, and thermal acceptability) of elderly (> 60 years) visitors to a park in the summer in a sub-tropic city, Changsha, China, through field observations, questionnaire surveys, and meteorological measurements. The results demonstrated that the neutral PET range was 21.99 to 26.97 °C, and both the thermal sensitivity and the neutral PET increased with age. |
| Lin et al. 2024 “Research on summer outdoor thermal comfort based on COMFA model in an urban park of Fuzhou, China” | Fuzhou, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Visitors (n = 268)of a park in Fuzhou, China, who lived in Fuzhou for more than one year | In-person questionnaire survey | Green coverage includes trees and other plant/vegetation coverage, found in parks | Self-reported thermal comfort | This study assessed the outdoor thermal comfort of urban park visitors in Fuzhou, China, based on the COMFA model through questionnaires and meteorological measurements. The findings demonstrated that visitors will be “unbearable” when the COMFA model reaches 177 W/m2 or higher. The authors recommended that increasing green coverage and tree canopy can significantly improve outdoor thermal comfort. |
| Liu et al. 2022 “Residents’ living environments, self-rated health status and perceptions of urban green space benefits” | Beijing, China, Asia | Hot summer humid continental climate (Dwa) | Residents (n = 432) of Beijing, China | Questionnaire mail-back survey | Urban green space is the “natural, semi-natural or artificial land covered by vegetative surfaces in the city”. It can include urban parks, gardens, and outdoor recreational venues with vegetation, street greening, and remnant natural or ruderal vegetated enclaves | Self-rated thermal benefits associations with self-rated health status | This study evaluated the relationships between the self-rated health status and living environments on the perceptions of urban green space ecological benefits for residents of Beijing, China, through questionnaire surveys. The results demonstrated that residents living in the city and with high self-rated health status had a significantly better understanding of urban green space benefits. |
| Liu et al. 2022 “Modelling residential outdoor thermal sensation in hot summer cities: A case study in Chongqing, China” | Chongqing, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cwa) | Visitors (n = 375) to an urban park in Chongqing, China, on a hot summer day | In-person questionnaire survey conducted outdoors in a residential community | Trees and other vegetation | Self-reported thermal sensation, thermal acceptability, and thermal (dis)comfort | This study proposed an empirical model to predict the mean thermal sensation vote through microclimate parameters and subjective thermal sensation (questionnaire surveys). The findings demonstrated that local residents adapted to warm and hot sensations, since the model predicted neutral sensations as warm and 19.4% of warm sensations as hot. Resting beside a pond or under a tree during peak warm hours also improved thermal sensation. |
| Lo et al. 2022 “Space poverty driving heat stress vulnerability and the adaptive strategy of visiting urban parks” | Hong Kong, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Tenants (n = 174) of SDU in Hong Kong and residents of Hong Kong who do not live in SDU (n = 515) | Structured in-person questionnaire surveys of SDU and non-SDU tenants | Green space includes neighborhood parks, trees, and vegetation cover | Self-reported heat-related illness (e.g., heat rash, heat cramp, heat syncope, heatstroke) and thermal comfort based on housing type | This study explored the socio-economic and heat vulnerability of tenants in SDUs in Hong Kong and associated thermal comfort practices compared to non-SDU tenants. Results demonstrated that SDU tenants were more vulnerable to urban heat than non-SDU residents and therefore had adopted more proactive thermal comfort practices less commonly adopted by non-SDU tenants (i.e., visiting urban parks). |
| Ma et al. 2021 “How to design comfortable open spaces for the elderly? Implications of their thermal perceptions in an urban park” | Xi’an, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Residents over 60 years old (n = 1,417) who were conducting outdoor activities in measured spaces in winter (n =471)and summer (n = 946) | In-person questionnaire surveys at study site | Vegetation cover in open space (e.g., trees and grass) | Self-reported thermal perceptions (comfort, preference, satisfaction), including associations with underlying health conditions | This study examined the thermal perceptions of elderly park visitors in Xi’an, China, through meteorological measurements and questionnaire surveys. After analysis, design strategies for the elderly were proposed. The results demonstrated that elderly residents with cardiovascular disease had the highest sensitivity to the outdoor thermal environment, further emphasizing the importance of providing a variety of outdoor microclimates that allow elderly residents to adapt to their thermal environment. |
| Maghrabi et al. 2021 “Exploring pattern of green spaces (GSs) and their impact on climatic change mitigation and adaptation strategies: Evidence from a Saudi Arabian city” | Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Asia | Hot desert climate (BWh) | Urban green space users (n = 585) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia | In-person questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews were performed in parks and gardens | Green spaces are a form of green infrastructure and are a nature-based solution to climate change and include urban forests, green roofs, green walls, and parks | Self-reported heat stress and thermal comfort | This study explored the preferences for GS and the role of GS in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies for residents in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, through questionnaire surveys and semi-structured interviews. The results showed that GS played a crucial role in temperature regulation, reduction in heat stress, and improved outdoor thermal comfort: more than 85% of respondents agreed that GS is highly important for climate change mitigation. |
| Maras et al. 2014 “Investigating public places and impacts of heat stress in the city of Aachen, Germany” | Aachen, Germany, Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | Visitors (n = 37) to public spaces in Aachen, Germany | On-site in-person surveys | Green spaces including vegetation such as trees and lawns | Self-reported heat perception and heat load | This study used a mixed methods approach to analyze the structural and social components of heat stress in Aachen, Germany, using spatial geo-statistical modelling, place-based survey data, biometeorological measurements, and on-site interviews. The results were combined to design a simulation, which showed that additional greenery would improve thermal comfort and reduce heat load. |
| Mi et al. 2020 “Outdoor thermal benchmarks and their application to climate-responsive designs of residential open spaces in a cold region of China” | Xi’an, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Active users (n = 1,208) of an open space in Xi’an, China, in winter, spring, and summer months | In-person questionnaire survey at study site | Green space includes a variety of plant communities (e.g., trees, vines, other vegetation) | Self-reported thermal comfort and thermal acceptability | This study assessed the relationship between microclimate measurements, subjective thermal comfort, and human behavior among open space users in Xi’an, China, through physical measurements, questionnaires, and activity records. The findings revealed that PET varied between spaces, residents preferred activities in the shade in the summer, and residents could better endure “cold stress” in the winter compared to “hot stress” in the summer. The neutral PET range found was 12.4 to 26.9 °C. |
| Mittermüller et al. 2021 “Context-specific, user-centred: Designing urban green infrastructure to effectively mitigate urban density and heat stress” | Munich, Germany, Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | Residents (n = 172) of 2 contrasting neighborhoods in Munich, Germany: (n = 87) Bahnhofsviertel and (n = 85) Messestadt | In-person questionnaire survey and semi-structured, in-depth interviews | Green spaces include green infrastructure such as trees, gardens, and other vegetation | Self-reported heat stress and thermal discomfort | This study assessed both objective data (microclimate modelling) and subjective data (questionnaire surveys and semi-structured interviews) on the interactions between density, heat, and vegetation for residents in 2 contrasting neighborhoods: (1) Bahnhofsviertel, dense and sparsely vegetated, and (2) Messestadt, less dense and ample green infrastructure. The results indicated that the amount of green infrastructure does not predict perception of urban heat; rather, it was the perceived accessibility of green space that defined its value for residents. |
| Nabhan et al. 2020 “Hands-on ecological restoration as a nature-based health intervention: Reciprocal restoration for people and ecosystems” | Greater Sonoran Desert, USA and Mexico, North America | Hot desert climate (BWh) | Youth ecological restoration programs in the Greater Sonoran Desert along the Arizona-Mexico border | Engagement with diverse youth in ecological restoration and education programs | Natural habitats that include diverse soil microbiota and vegetation | Heat-exacerbated diseases specific to the region such as coccidiomycosis (valley fever) | This study explored how the ecological restoration of microbiotic soil and aromatic plants reduced the urban heat island effect and therefore also reduced adverse health outcomes such as valley fever and asthma through tests of soil microbiome diversity and youth responses to restoration work. The study recommended further collaboration among restoration ecologists and ecopsychologists to better monitor the soil microbiome, plant diversity, and human health impacts of restoration projects over time; a particularly helpful next step could be cost and co-benefit estimates of restoration work across ecosystem types and human cultures. |
| Niu et al. 2023 “Thermal comfort influences positive emotions but not negative emotions when visiting green spaces during summer” | Chongqing, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Visitors (n = 919) to an urban park in Chongqing, China | In-person questionnaire survey | Green spaces include urban parks and have vegetation such as trees and lawns | Self-reported thermal sensation to reflect subjective feelings and emotional well-being (e.g., pleasure, excitement, displeasure, and pain) | This study explored the effects of thermal comfort on resident emotions in 4 different green spaces in Chongqing, China, through a questionnaire and meteorological measurements. The results demonstrated that the effect of thermal comfort in green spaces on positive affect was greater than that of negative affect and when the physiological equivalent temperature increased from 20 to 55 °C, the average positive affect decreased by 7.2 scores while the negative affect did not change significantly. |
| Oosterbroek et al. 2024 “Participatory design of urban green spaces to improve residents’ health” | Maastricht, The Netherlands, Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | Children (n = 25) and elderly (n = 17) residents of neighborhoods in Maastricht, The Netherlands, with low economic and health indicators | Participatory urban green space design through multiple design meetings | UGS is a type of green infrastructure, UGS-based intervention, and nature-based solution (parks, trees, lawns, shrubs, other vegetation) | Self-reported heat stress | This study developed and evaluated an approach to participatory design of UGS with children and elderly residents of Maastricht, The Netherlands, in neighborhoods with low economic and health indicators. The approach included subjective health effects of UGS designs and the use of maps to visualize UGS designs and health effects. The simulated model of the UGS designs resulted in expected subjective increases in UGS for stress reduction but little change in health benefits. |
| Rathmann et al. 2020 “Towards quantifying forest recreation: Exploring outdoor thermal physiology and human well-being along exemplary pathways in a central European urban forest (Augsburg, SE-Germany)” | Augsburg, Germany, Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | Visitors (n = 21) of an urban forest in Augsburg, Germany | Individual physiological sensors and subjective well-being logs | Urban green space as including urban public parks, residential green space, and urban/peri-urban forests | Self-reported subjective well-being and mobile thermal physiology measurements (heart rate, inter-beat interval, blood volume pressure, galvanic skin conductance) | This study explored the relationship between urban structural types (from built up to forest) and human health effects through combining both subjective well-being data and objective human physiology data in Augsburg, Germany. The findings demonstrated that urban green space provides significant cooling and improvement of human physiology measurements (e.g., reductions in heart rate). |
| Rosso et al. 2024 “Tactical urban pocket parks (TUPPs) for subjective and objective multidomain comfort enhancement” | New York City, NY, USA, North America | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Users (n = 348) of pocket parks in New York City, NY, USA | In-person questionnaire surveys | Green spaces include tactical urban pocket parks, small-sized urban parks with presence of greenery, presence of furniture for users, water displays, and works of art | Self-reported thermal comfort perceptions | This study explored the effectiveness of small-sized urban “pocket parks” in New York City, NY, USA, on thermal comfort through microclimate monitoring (objective thermal comfort) and questionnaire surveys of park users (subjective thermal comfort). The results demonstrated that “Tactical Urban Pocket Parks” had a greater significant improvement of subjective thermal comfort compared to objective thermal comfort. |
| Sousa-Silva and Zanocco 2024 “Assessing public attitudes towards urban green spaces as a heat adaptation strategy: Insights from Germany” | Germany, Europe | Oceanic climate (Cfb) | German adult residents (n = 2,253) ages 18 years or older | Online survey conducted by YouGov, “an international market and public opinion research company” | Urban green space defined as “areas of vegetation in public and private areas, including parks, gardens, lawns, tree alleys, green roofs, and cemeteries” | Self-reported experiences with green space as an adaptation measure to reduce heat stress and other adverse heat-related impacts | This study assessed the attitudes of German adults after the summer of 2022 on their perceived benefits of green space and their perspectives of green space as an adaptation measure against heat stress. Findings demonstrated overall positive associations with green space, but fewer than 20% frequented them on warm days, suggesting that the cooling potential of green space may be less understood. |
| Wong et al. 2017 “Urban heat island experience, control measures and health impact: A survey among working community in the city of Kuala Lumpur” | Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Asia | Tropical rainforest (Af) | People (n = 1,050) working in manufacturing and service sectors in 3 areas in Greater Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Mount Kiara, Jalan Raja Chulan, and Setia Alam) | Face-to-face roadside structured questionnaires | Vegetation cover (green areas) that includes green roofs, green walls, gardens, green space, parks, and trees | Self-reported adverse health experiences of urban heat island effect (physical health experience [heat exhaustion, heat stroke, etc.], psychological [depression, anxiety, etc.], and social [skip work, reduce outdoor activities, etc.]) | This study assessed the health impacts of the UHI effect on workers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The findings demonstrated that greater adverse health effects of UHI were associated with low measures to reduce UHI effects (including green vegetation, shaded lanes in active transport, and lack of appropriate building materials). |
| Wong et al. 2024 “Visiting urban green space as a climate-change adaptation strategy: Exploring push factors in a push-pull framework” | Hong Kong, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Individuals aged 15 or older (n = 483) from local Hong Kong households | Questionnaire survey | Urban green space types such as urban parks include vegetation coverage like trees and grass | Self-reported personal health impacts due to heat, including heat syncope and heat stress | This study examined the push and pull factors for UGS for residents in Hong Kong through a questionnaire survey of park users. The results indicated that health concerns, proximity to urban green space, and respondent age were significant predictors of UGS use. There was also notable interdependence between push and pull factors, such as the relationship between UGS visits and indoor living conditions as a push factor, and cooling as a pull factor. |
| Wu et al. 2024 “Investigating the potential of street trees in mitigating pedestrian thermal stress during heatwaves conditions: An empirical study in Guangzhou” | Guangzhou, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Male university students (n = 15) who had lived in Guangzhou, China, for over a year | Questionnaire survey during thermal walk experiment on a hot day | Urban greenery includes street trees and other plants | Self-reported thermal sensation and comfort | This study used a thermal walking experiment and questionnaire survey to assess the physical thermal stress of residents of Guangzhou, China, during their commutes. Additionally, the study specifically evaluated the heat tolerance of street trees and their impact on resident experiences. The results demonstrated that street trees affect the intensity, sequency, and duration of their exposure to heat; pedestrians showed higher heat tolerance when the cooling effect of trees surpassed 6 °C (thermal comfort vote > 1 and thermal acceptance vote > –0.01). |
| Yung et al. 2019 “Thermal perceptions of the elderly, use patterns and satisfaction with open space” | Hong Kong, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Elderly residents ages 65 or older (n = 485) using community open spaces in Hong Kong in summer (n = 219) and winter (n = 235) | In-person questionnaire survey at study site | Urban greenery such as tree canopy and other plants | Self-reported thermal perceptions (comfort, sensation, acceptability) | This study explored the thermal perceptions of elderly residents in Hong Kong when using open space in summer and winter on individual, physical, social, and psychological factors through questionnaire surveys and meteorological measurements. The results demonstrated the varying factors that influence the elderly’s thermal perceptions in both winter and summer, although they stressed the importance of paying particular attention to thermal comfort in outdoor spaces on hot days. |
| Zhang et al. 2020 “Outdoor thermal comfort of urban park—A case study” | Chengdu, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cwa) | Residents (n = 419)of Chengdu, China, visiting a park in the summer | Questionnaire survey at the chosen park (study site) | Urban green spaces include public parks with vegetation coverage (trees, other plants) | Self-reported thermal comfort | This study assessed the outdoor thermal comfort in an urban park in Chengdu, China, through meteorological monitoring and a questionnaire survey of Chengdu residents. The study found multiple results, including that different types of urban park landscapes have different thermal comfort scores and air temperature is the most important factor affecting outdoor thermal comfort. |
| Zhang et al. 2023 “Perceptions of the health risk from hot days and the cooling effect of urban green spaces: A case study in Xi’an, China” | Xi’an, China, Asia | Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) | Residents (n = 325) visiting urban parks in Xi’an City, China, on hot days | Questionnaire survey with close-and open-ended questions | Green space as a natural-based solution to climate mitigation and includes street trees and parks | Self-reported health risk and physical discomfort on hot days (sleep disorders, respiratory discomfort, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications, digestive system diseases, sunburn, sunstroke) | This study explored the perceptions of residents in Xi’an, China, on the relationship between the environment, heat-mitigation measures, and heat-related health risk through questionnaire surveys. The study found that 30.16% of respondents were under a huge health risk on hot days and 44.92% of respondents sought medical treatment due to hot days. Women were 18.52 more likely to suffer health threats than men. The study recommended the optimization of landscape patterns of green infrastructure to prevent heat health risks. |