Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
The hypothetical trait-based scheme for urban foresters, as presented by Watkins et al. (2021), builds upon the competitorstress tolerator-ruderal (CSR) theory. It demonstrates the diversity of viable plant strategies, which are characterised by a trade-off between fast growth and high tolerance of stress. This allows for the identification of tree species that are well-suited to urban forestry sites. (A) Positions A and C represent the 2 extremes of the trade-off between competitive and stress-tolerant strategies, with position B representing a generalist strategy. In disturbed environments, a greater investment in reproduction and faster growth is required, resulting in more ruderal strategies (Position D). In more stressful situations, delayed sexual maturity allows for greater investment in dense structural and photosynthetic tissues (Position E). It should be noted that, in contrast to other similar graphs, the trait trade-off is fitted by a quadratic rather than a linear line of best fit. (B) Overlays environments found in urban forests upon this model, resulting in a method for identifying the most suitable tree species for urban forestry sites.
- Figure 2.
Ordination of trees and shrubs growing in Alnarp, showing the different evolutionary strategies of each life form classifying plants according to 3 principal strategies (Competitors [C], Stress tolerators [S], Ruderal [R]), which represent a spectrum of plant forms and functions arising under conditions of competition, abiotic restriction to growth, or periodic disturbance, respectively. In this assessment, the study taxa of trees and shrubs were distributed along the Competitor-Stress tolerator (CS) axis of the ternary plots. It indicates that long-lived organisms such as trees have a limited tolerance to recurrent disturbances with extensive biomass losses, while this tolerance is somewhat higher in shrubs concerning disturbance, showing that shrubs have a more general approach to disturbance as well as competition and stress (CSR) compared with trees.
- Figure 3.
Ordination of trees growing in Alnarp, with examples of species within the different sections of the model according to 3 principal strategies (Competitors [C], Stress tolerators [S], Ruderal [R]) which represent a spectrum of plant forms and functions arising under conditions of competition, abiotic restriction to growth, or periodic disturbance, respectively. This shows a clear concentration of CS strategists with a relatively high tolerance to stress (resource constrained conditions) with a relatively good growth rate. Among the species that are more pronounced C-strategists, there are several pioneer species from resource-rich habitats, while pronounced S-strategists originate from resource-limited habitats such as warm and dry environments to shade late successional phases in forest environments.
- Figure 4.
Ordination of shrubs, growing in Alnarp, classifying them according to 3 principal strategies (Competitors [C], Stress tolerators [S], Ruderal [R]), which represent a spectrum of plant forms and functions arising under conditions of competition, abiotic restriction to growth, or periodic disturbance, respectively. This shows a broader spectrum of strategies with the exception of pronounced C-strategies compared to trees. Due to the limited ability of shrubs to compete with trees for sunlight, many species have developed characteristics to cope with more extreme conditions such as hot and dry sites or as undergrowth in mature forest environments, resulting in a large proportion of specialists and thus a large proportion of S-strategists.
- Figure 5.
The S-C axis in variation, overlaid with hypothesised fitness in urban environments, where position A relates to situations with high resource availability and low disturbance (e.g., swale bottoms or parks); position B relates to plants with generalist that have a relatively wide range of adaptive capacity; position C relates to plants that are well fitted to high stress environments such as paved areas or sites prone to drought; and position D relates to plants with a higher degree of adaptation to disturbed sites, making them more suitable for pioneer roles within new plant assemblages (S = logC2 + logC – 76.13 [1]; S = logC2 + logC – 104.65 [2]).
- Figure 6.
Species originating naturally from resource-rich habitats have developed unique traits with a rapid turnover in growth to create a competitive advantage (C-strategy), traits that they retain in cultivation as they establish and grow rapidly in resource-rich environments such as parks and gardens. Species originating from resource-limited habitats have a slower turnover in growth due to limited resources (S-strategy), a characteristic they also have in cultivation, even on resource-rich habitats, resulting in significantly slower establishment and growth. Figure developed with inspiration from Chapin (1980) and Laughlin (2023).
Tables
- Table S1.
Compilation of the CSR classification of the studied shrubs, where the calculated percentage for each category is presented in % (using one decimal), with a subsequent final classification using the StrateFy tool (Pierce et al. 2017).
Species (Shrubs) C (%) S (%) R (%) Strategy Acer pensylvanicum 56.5 28.8 14.7 C/CSR Actinidia deliciosa 67.5 32.5 0.0 C/CS Aesculus parviflora 47.6 25.1 27.3 C/CSR Amelanchier alnifolia 21.8 68.1 10.1 S/CS Amelanchier laevis 23.1 61.7 15.2 S/CSR Amelanchier × lamarckii 27.4 64.4 8.2 S/CS Amelanchier × spicata 21.4 61.5 17.1 S/CSR Aristolochia macrophylla 68.4 13.7 17.9 C/CR Aronia melanocarpa 30.6 69.4 0.0 S/CS Berberis julianae 11.3 88.7 0.0 S Berberis thunbergii 11.6 88.4 0.0 S Berberis verruculosa 5.6 94.4 0.0 S Berberis × frikartii 6.3 93.7 0.0 S Buddleja davidii 42.9 29.7 27.4 CSR Buxus sempervirens 16.4 83.6 0.0 S/CS Caragana arborescens 8.1 55.3 36.6 SR Chaenomeles japonica 13.3 86.7 0.0 S Cornus alba 33.2 43.4 23.3 CS/CSR Cornus mas 30.1 50.7 19.1 S/CSR Cornus racemosa 24.9 58.1 17.0 S/CSR Cornus racemosa ‘Green Carpet’ 24.5 75.5 0.0 S/CS Cornus sanguinea 31.9 40.2 27.8 CSR Cornus sericea 28.5 71.2 0.4 S/CS Cornus sericea ‘Bailadeline’ Firedance™ 19.3 73.3 7.4 S/CS Cornus sericea ‘Baileyi’ 29.6 64.8 5.6 S/CS Corylus avellana 37.2 45.3 17.5 CS/CSR Corylus maxima ‘Cosford’ 41.0 37.0 21.9 CS/CSR Corylus maxima ‘Nottingham’ 42.7 27.5 29.8 CSR Corylus maxima ‘Purpurea’ 45.7 27.1 27.2 C/CSR Cotinus coggygria 33.1 52.2 14.7 S/CSR Cotinus coggygria 26.3 66.8 6.9 S/CS Cotoneaster apiculatus 9.5 75.8 14.6 S/SR Cotoneaster dammeri 11.9 88.1 0.0 S Cotoneaster dielsianus 9.7 84.6 5.7 S Cotoneaster divaricatus 8.1 91.9 0.0 S Cotoneaster lucidus 21.3 58.1 20.6 S/CSR Cotoneaster multiflorus 17.5 72.2 10.2 S/CS Cotoneaster splendens 7.1 87.3 5.6 S Cotoneaster × suecicus 8.2 82.3 9.4 S Crataegus laevigata 19.7 60.8 19.5 S/CSR Crataegus monogyna 20.8 73.0 6.2 S/CS Crataegus rhipidophylla 19.9 68.5 11.6 S/CS Daphne mezerum 25.4 26.2 48.3 R/CSR Decaisnea fargesii 28.5 26.2 45.3 R/CSR Deutzia gracilis 15.0 85.0 0.0 S Deutzia scabra 32.5 51.1 16.5 S/CSR Diervilla lonicera 23.9 76.1 0.0 S/CS Diervilla lonicera ‘Dilon’ 52.1 37.2 10.6 CS Diervilla sessilifolia 36.3 63.7 0.0 S/CS Enkianthus companulatus 18.7 36.0 45.2 SR/CSR Euonymus alatus 14.3 85.7 0.0 S Euonymus europaeus 27.7 55.0 17.3 S/CSR Euonymus fortunei ‘Emerald Gaiety’ 28.4 58.7 13.0 S/CSR Euonymus fortunei ‘Emerald ‘n’ Gold’ 26.6 69.4 3.9 S/CS Euonymus fortunei ‘Silver Queen’ 22.2 77.8 0.0 S/CS Euonymus fortunei var. radicans 25.8 72.8 1.5 S/CS Euonymus fortunei var. vegetus 52.2 13.0 34.7 CR/CSR Euonymus planipes 37.9 45.3 16.8 CS/CSR Forsythia ‘Lowe Tide’ 18.6 81.4 0.0 S/CS Forsythia mandshurica 49.6 39.3 11.1 CS/CSR Forsythia ‘Maree d’Or’™ 17.7 78.3 4.0 S/CS Forsythia intermedia 24.6 75.4 0.0 S/CS Forsythia × intermedia ‘Goldzauber’ 41.8 34.2 24.0 CS/CSR Fothergilla major 40.8 47.9 11.4 CS/CSR Hamamelis virginiana 40.4 41.2 18.3 CS/CSR Hamamelis × intermedia 39.0 45.7 15.4 CS/CSR Hedera colchica 55.0 45.0 0.0 CS Hedera helix 44.0 45.5 10.5 CS Hippophaë rhamnoides 19.5 78.5 2.0 S/CS Hydrangea arborescens 46.9 46.6 6.5 CS Hydrangea macrophylla 65.1 25.2 9.6 C/CS Hydrangea petiolaris 48.6 50.3 1.1 CS Hydrangea serrata 52.2 44.2 3.6 CS Hypericum kalmianum ‘Ames’ 11.6 76.9 11.5 S/CS Hypericum kalmianum ‘Gemo’ 8.7 79.5 11.8 S Ilex aquifolium ‘Alaska’ 25.1 74.9 0.0 S/CS Ilex aquifolium ‘J.C. van Tol’ 32.2 67.8 0.0 S/CS Ilex crenata ‘Blondie’ 15.4 84.6 0.0 S Ilex crenata ‘Dark Green’ 4.2 95.8 0.0 S Ilex verticillata 31.9 61.3 6.7 S/CS Kolkwitzia amabilis 25.8 52.1 22.2 S/CSR Laburnum alpinum 25.3 37.5 37.3 CSR Laburnum anagyroides 23.9 54.7 21.5 S/CSR Ligustrum vulgare 14.3 79.6 6.0 S/CS Lonicera caerulea 24.0 57.5 18.5 S/CSR Lonicera caerulea var. kamtschatica 20.8 79.2 0.0 S/CS Lonicera involucrata 34.1 50.1 15.9 CS/CSR Lonicera maackii 25.7 62.6 11.7 S/CS Lonicera nitida 9.8 87.1 3.1 S Lonicera periclymenum 35.9 32.6 31.5 CSR Lonicera tatarica 28.0 54.8 17.2 S/CSR Lonicera xylosteum 26.2 54.0 19.7 S/CSR Lonicera xylosteum ‘Compacta’ 23.6 65.7 10.7 S/CS Magnolia ‘Wada’s Memory’ 32.9 45.1 22.0 CS/CSR Magnolia × soulangeana 53.8 34.2 12.0 CS/CSR Mahonia aquilifolium 28.5 63.2 8.2 S/CS Malus toringo var. sargentii 34.2 65.8 0.0 S/CS Philadelphus coronarius 30.1 46.2 23.7 S/CSR Physocarpus opulifolius 28.4 52.8 18.8 S/CSR Pieris floribunda 20.2 73.7 6.1 S/CS Pieris japonica 19.2 80.8 0.0 S/CS Pinus mugo var. pumilio 3.1 96.9 0.0 S Potentilla fruticosa 5.9 83.2 10.9 S Prunus cerasifera 23.0 60.6 16.4 S/CSR Prunus laurocerasus ‘Mano’ 48.0 49.6 2.4 CS Prunus laurocerasus ‘Otto Luyken’ 39.5 60.5 0.0 CS Prunus laurocerasus ‘Piri’ 35.3 64.7 0.0 S/CS Prunus pumila var. depressa 21.2 78.8 0.0 S/CS Prunus spinosa 16.9 71.0 12.1 S/CS Pyracantha ‘Anatolia’ 10.7 89.3 0.0 S Pyracantha coccinea ‘Red Cushion’ 10.8 89.2 0.0 S Rhamnus catharticus 29.3 39.5 31.2 CSR Rhododendron brachycarpum 38.7 61.3 0.0 CS Rhododendron ‘Catawbiense Album’ 38.0 62.0 0.0 CS Rhododendron catawbiense ‘Boursalt’ 41.6 52.0 6.3 CS Rhododendron ‘Catawbiense Grandiflora’ 37.8 62.2 0.0 CS Rhododendron luteum 35.6 46.6 17.8 CS/CSR Rhododendron mucronulatum 22.9 58.2 18.9 S/CSR Rhododendron ‘Rosa Wolke’ 33.6 66.4 0.0 S/CS Rhododendron ‘Roseum Elegans’ 42.4 46.4 11.2 CS/CSR Rhus aromatica 19.1 80.9 0.0 S/CS Rhus typhina 26.8 53.8 19.4 S/CSR Ribes alpinum 18.2 61.6 20.2 S/CSR Ribes alpinum ‘Compacta’ 11.5 88.5 0.0 S Ribes glandulosum 23.2 76.8 0.0 S/CS Rosa dumalis 14.1 72.0 13.8 S/CS Rosa majalis 17.2 65.2 17.6 S/CSR Rosa pimpinellifolia 20.7 65.3 14.0 S/CS Rosa rubiginosa 10.6 72.0 17.4 S/SR Rosa rugosa 18.8 81.2 0.0 S/CS Salix caprea 41.6 48.1 10.3 CS Salix lanata ‘Hjeltnes’ 38.1 61.9 0.0 CS Salix lanata ‘Nitida’ 6.8 88.5 4.7 S Salix repens 6.7 85.6 7.7 S Salix × purpurea 9.0 81.2 9.8 S Sambucus nigra 38.2 13.6 48.2 CR/CSR Sorbaria sorbifolia 17.1 48.8 34.1 SR/CSR Spiraea betulifolia 22.4 74.8 2.8 S/CS Spiraea fritschiana 21.1 78.8 0.1 S/CS Spiraea japonica 24.1 55.6 20.3 S/CSR Spiraea miyabei 23.2 76.8 0.0 S/CS Spiraea nipponica 8.4 72.5 19.2 S/SR Spiraea trilobata 14.3 78.7 7.0 S/CS Spiraea × cinerea 5.9 75.6 18.5 S/SR Spiraea × cinerea ‘Grefsheim’ 6.2 71.8 22.0 S/SR Stephanandra incisa 16.8 49.7 33.5 SR/CSR Stephanandra tanake 28.4 62.7 8.9 S/CS Symphoricarpos ‘Arvid’ E. 18.9 69.9 11.2 S/CS Symphoricarpos ‘Magical Galaxy’ 9.8 83.0 7.2 S Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 10.2 89.8 0.0 S Syringa josikaea 46.4 33.4 20.3 CS/CSR Syringa meyeri ‘Palibin’ 20.9 50.9 28.2 S/CSR Syringa microphylla ‘Superba’ 27.8 63.9 8.3 S/CS Syringa patula 30.1 58.9 11.0 S/CSR Syringa reflexa 43.6 40.9 15.5 CS/CSR Syringa reticulata 47.6 40.9 11.5 CS/CSR Syringa vulgaris 43.4 49.0 7.6 CS Syringa × chinensis 32.3 45.3 22.4 CS/CSR Taxus baccata 3.4 96.6 0.0 S Taxus cuspidata 2.8 97.2 0.0 S Viburnum carlesii 33.2 66.8 0.0 S/CS Viburnum ferreri 35.5 49.0 15.5 CS/CSR Viburnum lantana 36.2 54.8 9.0 CS Viburnum opulus 39.8 40.1 20.1 CS/CSR Viburnum plicatum f. tomentosum 38.0 55.7 6.3 CS Viburnum rhytidophyllum 52.8 47.2 0.0 CS Viburnum sargentii 33.3 50.4 16.3 CS/CSR Viburnum × bodnantense 46.0 35.7 18.4 CS/CSR Viburnum × burkwoodii 38.9 61.1 0.0 CS Vinca minor 12.2 87.8 0.0 S Weigela × hybrida 39.9 60.1 0.0 CS Wisteria sinensis 19.5 61.8 18.7 S/CSR - Table S2.
Compilation of the CSR classification of the studied trees, where the calculated percentage for each category is presented in % (using one decimal), with a subsequent final classification using the StrateFy tool (Pierce et al. 2017).
Species (Trees) C (%) S (%) R (%) Strategy Abies alba 1.9 98.1 0.0 S Abies homolepis 1.4 98.6 0.0 S Abies nordmanniana 2.0 98.0 0.0 S Abies pinsapo 1.1 98.9 0.0 S Acer campestre 36.5 54.7 8.8 CS Acer davidii 43.5 49.9 6.7 CS Acer miyabei 35.3 62.1 2.6 S/CS Acer monspessulanum 22.4 69.5 8.1 S/CS Acer negundo 51.2 43.2 5.6 CS Acer nigrum 51.9 44.1 4.0 CS Acer palmatum 38.2 28.7 33.1 CSR Acer platanoides 56.6 40.2 3.2 CS Acer pseudoplatanus 66.8 31.1 2.2 C/CS Acer pseudosieboldianum 36.2 52.8 11.1 CS/CSR Acer rubrum 43.5 50.7 5.8 CS Acer saccharinum 41.1 52.9 6.0 CS Acer saccharum 50.2 45.9 3.9 CS Acer spicatum 50.1 37.4 12.4 CS/CSR Acer tataricum 32.1 63.4 4.5 S/CS Acer × zoeschense 38.0 62.0 0.0 CS Alnus glutinosa 42.8 48.8 8.4 CS Alnus incana 38.7 53.8 7.5 CS Alnus rubra 44.6 52.8 2.7 CS Alnus sinuata 41.2 55.6 3.1 CS Alnus subcordata 53.2 39.9 6.8 CS Alnus × spaethii 45.5 50.9 3.6 CS Amelanchier lamarckii 25.2 68.0 6.8 S/CS Betula albosinensis 36.4 52.4 11.2 CS/CSR Betula alleghaniensis 38.3 53.2 8.5 CS Betula pendula 27.7 61.7 10.6 S/CS Betula populifolia 30.3 67.5 2.2 S/CS Broussonetia papyrifera 59.7 37.1 3.2 CS Buxus sempervirens ‘Rotundifolia’ 17.2 82.8 0.0 S/CS Carpinus betulus 33.9 52.7 13.4 CS/CSR Carpinus caroliniana 30.0 63.6 6.4 S/CS Carpinus fargesii 29.1 61.8 9.1 S/CS Carpinus orientalis 13.9 76.1 10.0 S/CS Carpinus turczaninowii 19.9 77.5 2.7 S/CS Carya cordiformis 66.3 33.4 0.3 C/CS Carya ovata 71.4 28.6 0.0 C/CS Carya tomentosa 71.1 28.9 0.0 C/CS Castanea sativa 49.0 43.8 7.2 CS Catalpa speciosa 71.7 24.6 3.7 C/CS Celtis occidentalis 36.1 56.2 7.7 CS Cercidiphyllum japonicum 36.0 47.1 16.9 CS/CSR Cladrastis kentukea 63.1 27.4 9.5 C/CS Cornus florida 41.1 44.4 14.5 CS/CSR Cornus kousa 40.1 53.0 6.9 CS Cornus mas 34.8 56.1 9.1 CS Corylus avellana 44.0 44.4 11.7 CS/CSR Corylus chinense 48.6 46.5 5.0 CS Corylus colurna 50.1 45.5 4.4 CS Corylus ferox 43.0 49.9 7.1 CS Cotinus coggygria 30.4 68.5 1.1 S/CS Crataegus monogyna 30.2 69.8 0.0 S/CS Davidia involucrata 57.7 34.1 8.2 CS Elaeagnus angustifolia 22.6 73.4 4.0 S/CS Eucommia ulmoides 49.0 45.1 5.8 CS Fagus orientalis 37.0 44.6 18.4 CS/CSR Fagus sylvatica 35.4 57.3 7.3 CS Fraxinus americana ‘Autumn Purple’ 64.6 29.6 5.8 C/CS Fraxinus excelsior 67.2 29.1 3.7 C/CS Fraxinus fallax 69.0 28.9 2.1 C/CS Ginkgo biloba 47.1 36.3 16.6 CS/CSR Gleditsia triacanthos 45.3 54.5 0.3 CS Gymnocladus dioicus 76.1 17.4 6.5 C/CS Hippophae rhamnoides 14.2 85.8 0.0 S Ilex aquifolium 29.8 70.2 0.0 S/CS Juglans cinerea 73.2 24.7 2.2 C/CS Juglans nigra 72.0 23.5 4.5 C/CS Juglans regia 75.6 24.4 0.0 C/CS Koelreuteria paniculata 62.0 35.8 2.2 C/CS Laburnum angyroides 42.4 42.4 15.2 CS/CSR Larix × eurolepis 0.0 100.0 0.0 S Liquidambar styraciflua 45.7 50.4 3.9 CS Liriodendron tulipifera 64.4 25.8 9.8 C/CS Magnolia biondii 48.7 46.7 4.6 CS Magnolia kobus 44.4 46.4 9.1 CS Magnolia obovata 73.9 19.5 6.6 C/CS Magnolia sprengeri 56.3 43.2 0.5 CS Magnolia × loebneri 41.0 49.5 9.5 CS Malus domestica 46.0 52.3 1.7 CS Malus sylvestris 39.5 59.3 1.2 CS Metasequoia glyptostroboides 37.6 62.4 0.0 CS Morus alba 60.6 34.1 5.3 C/CS Morus nigra 61.7 28.4 9.9 C/CS Nothofagus antarctica 10.7 81.8 7.4 S Nyssa sylvatica 32.8 58.8 8.4 S/CS Ostrya carpinifolia 31.8 58.3 9.9 S/CSR Ostrya virginiana 35.1 53.5 11.4 CS/CSR Picea abies 0.0 100.0 0.0 S Picea omorika 0.0 100.0 0.0 S Picea orientalis 0.0 100.0 0.0 S Picea peuce 3.3 96.7 0.0 S Picea sitchensis 0.0 100.0 0.0 S Pinus koraiensis 4.3 95.7 0.0 S Pinus leucodermis 5.2 94.8 0.0 S Pinus sylvestris 3.7 96.3 0.0 S Pinus × schwerinii 5.4 94.6 0.0 S Platanus × hispanica 59.5 37.1 3.4 CS Populus alba ‘Nivea’ 34.1 65.2 0.7 S/CS Populus balsamifera 51.5 41.6 7.0 CS Populus lasiocarpa 74.1 23.9 2.0 C/CS Populus nigra ‘Italica’ 36.5 63.5 0.0 S/CS Populus purdomii 55.4 44.6 0.0 CS Populus tremula 35.6 54.8 9.6 CS Populus × canadensis ‘Robusta’ 49.0 51.0 0.0 CS Populus × wettsteinii 38.9 55.5 5.7 CS Prunus avium 45.5 45.5 9.0 CS Prunus cerasifera 31.3 59.7 9.1 S/CS Prunus laurocerasus 36.0 64.0 0.0 S/CS Prunus padus 37.3 54.8 7.9 CS Prunus sargentii 45.2 47.4 7.4 CS Prunus serotina 33.2 58.4 8.4 S/CS Prunus spinosa 20.2 73.9 5.9 S/CS Pterocarya fraxinifolia 73.3 23.9 2.8 C/CS Pterocarya insignis 75.7 21.4 2.9 C/CS Pterocarya rhoifolia 71.4 22.7 5.9 C/CS Pyrus communis 32.0 64.0 4.1 S/CS Pyrus ussuriensis 31.6 57.1 11.3 S/CSR Quercus coccinea 48.2 51.8 0.0 CS Quercus cerris 36.9 55.8 7.3 CS Quercus coccínea 47.5 51.3 1.2 CS Quercus dentata ‘Carl Ferris Miller’ 60.3 39.7 0.0 CS Quercus frainetto 41.9 54.1 4.0 CS Quercus macrocarpa 52.3 47.7 0.0 CS Quercus petraea 43.6 53.6 2.8 CS Quercus prinus 51.7 47.1 1.3 CS Quercus robur 44.3 55.1 0.6 CS Quercus rubra 55.0 40.7 4.3 CS Rhododendron ‘Catawbiense Grandiflorum’ 43.1 56.9 0.0 CS Rhododendron mucronulatum 20.3 68.9 10.8 S/CS Rhus typhina 68.7 27.7 3.5 C/CS Robinia pseudoacacia 47.4 44.7 7.9 CS Salix alba 19.8 72.6 7.6 S/CS Salix alba var. sericea 26.2 72.1 1.6 S/CS Salix caprea 39.4 55.4 5.2 CS Salix pentandra 36.7 63.3 0.0 S/CS Salix viminalis 27.2 71.1 1.7 S/CS Salix × fragilis 29.9 57.8 12.3 S/CSR Salix × sepulcralis ‘Chrysocoma’ 25.7 72.1 2.2 S/CS Sambucus nigra 66.6 17.4 16.0 C/CS Sorbus aucuparia 55.0 41.3 3.7 CS Sorbus hupehensis 50.9 49.1 0.0 CS Sorbus intermedia 41.2 58.8 0.0 CS Sorbus torminalis 44.1 55.9 0.0 CS Sorbus ulleungensis 64.0 36.0 0.0 C/CS Styphnolobium japonicum 56.5 33.6 9.9 C/CSR Syringa reticulata 40.8 59.2 0.0 CS Syringa vulgaris 51.8 48.2 0.0 CS Taxodium distichum 27.6 66.4 6.0 S/CS Taxus baccata 2.5 97.5 0.0 S Taxus cuspidata 3.0 97.0 0.0 S Tetracentron sinense 37.8 44.0 18.2 CS/CSR Tetradium danielii 69.5 30.5 0.0 C/CS Tilia cordata 45.0 46.5 8.5 CS Tilia mongolica 41.3 51.4 7.3 CS Tilia platyphyllos 44.7 48.7 6.6 CS Tilia tomentosa 52.0 42.2 5.8 CS Tilia × europaea ‘Zwarte Linde’ 43.0 44.3 12.7 CS/CSR Toona sinensis 74.4 25.6 0.0 C/CS Tsuga canadensis 0.0 100.0 0.0 S Tsuga caroliniana 0.4 99.6 0.0 S Tsuga heterophylla 0.3 99.7 0.0 S Tsuga mertseniana 0.2 99.8 0.0 S Ulmus glabra 51.4 42.8 5.9 CS Ulmus glaucescens 29.9 70.1 0.0 S/CS Wisteria sinensis 54.9 34.7 10.4 CS Zelkova schneideriana 30.6 69.4 0.0 S/CS Zelkova serrata 33.3 62.1 4.6 S/CS
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