Abstract
The importance of urban parks for improving the quality of life of residents is becoming increasingly clear as people interact less and less with nature. Urban parks should be designed to have a profound impact on the mental health and well-being of citizens through the provision of high-quality facilities and services. Nevertheless, there are differences in the influencing factors in urban parks. Nowadays, urban parks as the lungs of cities are considered important destinations for citizens to get rid of stress and mental fatigue. Therefore, it is important to understand what factors contribute to people feeling mentally better and improving their well-being. Based on people’s experiences and opinions, the present study aims to investigate how urban parks as nature-based solutions in Marivan City, Iran, especially the green infrastructure and its elements in Shano and Zaribar Parks, contribute to respondent’s mental health and overall well-being. The necessary data for this study were collected from 277 respondents using a questionnaire. The questionnaire was randomly distributed both in person and online. The questions were categorized based on 3 indicators directly related to mental health and well-being: perceptual, visual, and functional. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling in Smart-PLS software. Results indicate that the perceptual, visual, and functional indicators in Marivan’s urban parks have a significant impact on the mental health and well-being of residents. Among these indicators, the visual indicator has shown the highest level of influence.
Introduction
In today’s society, more and more people are facing problems related to their physical and mental health (bin Hassan et al. 2018; Ward and Scott 2018; Cianconi et al. 2020). Although mental health is a complex construct, this term is often described as the perception of one’s mental well-being as manifested in environmental and psychological behaviors (Ward and Scott 2018). In the present study, the concept of perceptions of mental health and mental well-being refers to an individual’s cognitive evaluation of their current mental health status (Pietilä et al. 2015; Kamimura et al. 2018). Concerns about the decline in physical activity leading to public health problems such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and mortality, as well as mental health problems such as depression, are now common worldwide (Nielsen and Hansen 2007). Increasing participation in physical activity is crucial, as an active lifestyle has positive health benefits (de Vries et al. 2003; Kaczynski and Henderson 2007). Nature-based solutions (NBS) are instrumental in addressing the urban mental health crisis, which has been recognized as a societal challenge. Following the World Health Organization’s (WHO) broad definition of mental health, NBS goes beyond the alleviation of illness to include the promotion of self-discovery, psychological resilience, and social relationships (Kabisch et al. 2023). Due to the environmental and social challenges that cities are currently facing, NBS have gained popularity among policy makers and urban planners worldwide (Nesshöver et al. 2017; Hanson et al. 2020). The term “nature-based solutions” was first introduced in 2008 in the context of ecosystem services (The World Bank 2008; Potschin et al. 2016). NBS provide cost-effective methods to achieve urban adaptability and flexibility while securing human and environmental benefits by supporting communities in sustainably addressing social, environmental, and economic challenges (Dumitru and Wendling 2021). NBS help to address various environmental and social challenges in an environmentally sustainable way, which is receiving increased attention (van den Bosch and Sang 2017; Vujcic et al. 2017). The goals of NBS include restoring connections between man-made environments and semi-natural systems and reintegrating nature into urban environments (Kabisch et al. 2017). Urban green infrastructure is widely recognized as a nature-based solution and offers flexible strategies to address the challenges of modern urban life (Kabisch et al. 2016; Meerow and Newell 2017). Urban green infrastructure includes various types of green spaces, including green roofs, green walls, urban gardens, street trees, and parks (Elmqvist et al. 2013; Riechers et al. 2016; Lu et al. 2017). Urban green infrastructure has the potential to improve climate quality, enhance physical and mental health, and promote social and cultural well-being (Keeler et al. 2019). High-quality green spaces play an important role in improving the well-being of people, especially those living in urban areas (Knight et al. 2022; Macháč et al. 2022; McDougall et al. 2022). Improving the quality of urban green spaces can create a better living environment for city dwellers (Francis et al. 2012).
Among the various human perceptions, visual perception accounts for about 80% (Gholami et al. 2021; Guo et al. 2021). The importance of the visual quality of urban landscapes for physical and psychological recreation, nature conservation, and comprehensive planning and management is widely recognized (Jahani and Saffariha 2020; Jovanovska et al. 2020; Li et al. 2022). Studies suggest that both the experience of natural landscapes (visual and optical stimuli) and contact with natural elements (tactile, olfactory, and auditory stimuli) can reduce psychosocial stress factors, increase biological well-being, and alleviate internal anxiety. It has been repeatedly emphasized that landscapes, especially gentle and calming landscapes, can quickly evoke emotions, effectively reduce tension, and alleviate irritability, fatigue, and physical symptoms (Parsons 1991). The health benefits of mental rejuvenation and serenity resulting from contact with nature and green spaces have been well documented in various studies (Hartig 2007; Hartig et al. 2014). Contact with nature, such as experiencing green landscapes in urban areas, has significant positive effects on people with high stress levels and leads to a more positive emotional state (Ulrich 1983; Ulrich et al. 1991). These stimuli in natural environments help to restore the well-being of people suffering from mental fatigue (Kaplan 1995; Kaplan 2001). A study in the United Kingdom, for example, used wearable sensors to demonstrate the effects of a short walk in the countryside on brain activity, which may be associated with increased relaxation and rejuvenation (Aspinall et al. 2015). Walking in natural environments has been found to provide stronger short-term benefits compared to walking in urban residential areas (Gidlow et al. 2016). In addition, research has shown that exposure to green spaces reduces neuronal activity in the subgenual prefrontal cortex, leading to a decrease in depressive symptoms (Bratman et al. 2015). Recent studies using a nature-based solutions approach suggest that urban green spaces are very effective in improving mental health and well-being by alleviating stress, depression, and anxiety (van den Bosch and Sang 2017; Vujcic et al. 2017; MacKinnon et al. 2019; Kolokotsa et al. 2020; Coventry et al. 2021; Sohaib et al. 2022; Pereira et al. 2023; Singh et al. 2023). As urban green spaces are essential sources of mental and physical well-being for residents and can have a significant impact on leisure and mobility (Tyrväinen et al. 2005; Han and Hyun 2019; Grigoletto et al. 2023), much research has been conducted on the role of urban parks for well-being and mental health, but these studies are not yet sufficient. However, there is no comprehensive model to investigate the effects of visual, perceptual, and functional factors on well-being in urban parks. Also, there are no other studies in this field in the above-mentioned state of Iran.
Previous research shows that urban green spaces help to reduce stress and increase overall psychological well-being (Abkar et al. 2010; Grahn and Stigsdotter 2010; Roe et al. 2013; Tyrväinen et al. 2014; Hedblom et al. 2019; Yang et al. 2019; Berdejo-Espinola et al. 2021). However, not much research has been conducted on which factors in green areas (visual, perceptual, and functional factors) have the most healing effect on visitors. Therefore, this study fills this research gap. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of effective factors in urban parks as nature-based solutions for people’s mental health and well-being in two parks in Marivan City, Iran.
Literature Review
In recent decades, a growing body of research has explored the complex relationship between nature-based solutions and mental health and well-being. This literature review aims to critically examine the existing studies assessing the impact of nature-based solution factors on mental health and well-being, focusing on visual, functional, and conceptual aspects in urban parks. The visual aspects of urban parks play a crucial role in shaping individuals’ experiences and perceptions. Previous studies have emphasized the importance of aesthetic qualities, landscaping, and greenery for psychological well-being. For example, Kaplan and Kaplan (1989a) highlighted the positive effects of a visually appealing natural environment on stress reduction and attention restoration. In addition, Ulrich and Parsons (1992) have shown that exposure to natural scenes contributes to psychological well-being. These studies emphasize the importance of visual aspects in promoting mental health in urban parks. Throughout history, people have used plants for a variety of purposes, including food, warmth, protection, emotional stimulation, and, most importantly, healing. The value of aromatic and medicinal plants used for healing has grown over time along with medical research (Arslan et al. 2018). Through the sense of smell, fragrant plants can influence both physical and mental health and serve as an important natural resource (Glass et al. 2014; Swamy and Sinniah 2015). For example, according to Kim et al. (2016), the scent of rose essential oil has been shown to promote both physiological and psychological calm. In addition, numerous empirical studies have investigated the effects of urban parks on health and well-being. These positive effects include a reduction in blood pressure and cortisol levels, a reduction in stress, fewer stress-related illnesses, improved physiological functioning, lower pulse and heart rate, and a decrease in obesity (Moore et al. 1982; Thompson et al. 2012; Loreau and de Mazancourt 2013; Tsunetsugu et al. 2013; Astell-Burt et al. 2014; Lee et al. 2014; Song et al. 2014).
The functional aspect of urban parks deals with the practical and utilitarian dimensions that contribute to psychological well-being. The results of studies (Enssle and Kabisch 2020) have shown that urban green spaces are important for health and well-being because they provide spaces for physical activity and social interactions (Jennings and Bamkole 2019). For example, social interactions can provide opportunities for people to connect with each other, strengthen their sense of community, and relax from the stresses of everyday life in urban green areas (Cattell et al. 2008). Urban green spaces and social interactions may be related to the following factors: open park design that encourages active recreational activities (Peters et al. 2010); accessibility of walkways (Holtan et al. 2015); improved access to parks through quality transportation (Ward Thompson et al. 2016); shaded areas that promote a peaceful environment (Peters et al. 2010); functional playgrounds (Bennet et al. 2012); and the amount of organized activities (Plane and Klodawsky 2013). Recent research has shown that spending at least 120 minutes per week in a natural environment is significantly associated with health and well-being (White et al. 2020). Green and blue spaces, such as parks, provide indirect benefits to physical (and mental) health by promoting physical activity (Smith et al. 2016; Pearce et al. 2022) and facilitating social interactions (Enssle and Kabisch 2020). The results of the study conducted by Liu et al. (2017) showed that physical exercise significantly improved the emotions and energy levels of park visitors. In addition, engagement with nature had a positive effect on mental health and promoted a sense of calm and self-confidence. Research by Herzog and Strevey (2008) suggests that well-designed functional features such as accessible walkways, recreational spaces, and seating are associated with increased physical activity and social interaction, which has a positive impact on mental health. In addition, a study by Cohen et al. (2016) emphasized the role of functional amenities, such as sports facilities, in promoting community engagement and well-being. Understanding the different elements within the functional aspect is crucial for a comprehensive assessment of their impact on mental health. The conceptual aspect encompasses the symbolic and cultural meanings attributed to urban parks. A study by Ramkissoon et al. (2013) examined the importance of designing parks in line with local values and cultural identity when it comes to fostering a sense of place and community connectedness, which has a positive impact on mental well-being. Furthermore, the conceptual aspects are about the perception of safety and security in the park environment. Studies by Kuo and Sullivan (2001) have demonstrated that perceptions of safety contribute to increased park usage and, consequently, enhanced mental health outcomes.
While previous studies have examined the visual, functional, and conceptual aspects separately, research has only examined their interaction in urban parks to a limited extent. In particular, the integration of these aspects is essential for a comprehensive understanding of their joint effects on mental health and well-being. One study by Hartig et al. (2014) indicated the interplay of visual aesthetics, functional amenity, and conceptual orientation in shaping positive psychological responses. However, a holistic model that incorporates the synergies between visual aspects, functional aspects, and conceptual aspects is clearly lacking in the current literature. Given this research gap, our proposed model aims to investigate and develop a nuanced understanding of the interrelationships between visual aspects, functional aspects, and conceptual aspects in urban parks. Through the use of a comprehensive research design, we aim to investigate how these aspects collectively contribute to the mental health and well-being of park users. Our study aims to fill this gap in the literature and provide valuable insights for urban planners, policy makers, and landscape architects in creating environments that holistically support mental health. The proposed model aims to fill the existing research gap and contribute to a holistic understanding of the interlinked dynamics that shape positive psychological outcomes in urban park environments. In this context, a conceptual model of the research is presented in Figure 1.
Conceptual model of research.
Methods
Study Area
Marivan City, Iran, with an area of 3,196 km2, is one of the 6 major cities in the Kurdistan province in western Iran (Balist et al. 2019). This city is located at an eastern longitude ranging from 45°46′ to 58°45′ and at a northern latitude ranging from 48°35′ to 19°35′ north of the equator. It is situated at an elevation of 1,320 m above sea level (Rashidi et al. 2018). Marivan City, with its abundant natural attractions, is one of the most picturesque regions in the Kurdistan province of western Iran (Rahimi et al. 2024). Due to its diverse natural areas and pristine attractions, it is considered one of the most significant ecotourism areas in the country. Some of its most beautiful tourist attractions include Lake Zaribar and the Zaribar Waterfront Park (Badri et al. 2011). Marivan has a population of over 140,000 people and covers an area of 110 ha of green space, resulting in a per-capita green space area of approximately 8 m2. Marivan boasts a total of 43 parks, varying in neighborhood, district, and city scales (Marivan Green Spaces Statistics 2023). Among these, the research study areas comprise 2 urban and suburban public parks with high visitation rates, namely Shano Park and Zaribar Waterfront Park. Shano Park, established in 2014, spans an area of 4.6 ha. Shano (“Shano” is a Kurdish word meaning theater) Park has gained prominence as the first theater park in the world (Khani et al. 2023). It serves as the venue for the International Street Theater Festival in Marivan City, which has also been recognized as the capital of street theater in Iran (Manouchehri et al. 2023). Despite its widespread recognition in Iran, Shanu Park boasts abundant cultural and recreational infrastructure and has transformed into a tourist destination, hosting both national and international theater performances. Also, Zaribar Waterfront Park, situated in the Zaribar Lake, stands as the foremost attraction and tourist destination in the Kurdistan province. With a length of 4.5 km and a width of approximately 2 km, the lake spans an area of approximately 850 to 900 ha. Zaribar Lake attained international acclaim as the 25th Iranian wetland during the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands in 2019, held in Ramsar, Iran (Sadeghi et al. 2021). Zaribar Waterfront Park, established in 2000, covers an expansive area of over 12 ha (Marivan Green Spaces Statistics 2023). Zaribar Waterfront Park, adjacent to Zaribar Lake, is surrounded by the Zagros forests and is constructed as a recreational tourism park with minimal topographical alterations, preserving its pristine natural surroundings. The study area locations are illustrated in Figure 2.
Location of study areas.
Indicators and Items of Research
In the present study, based on previous research conducted in the field of NBS factors in urban green spaces and urban parks, research indicators, items, and their associated benefits were determined. The independent indicators included 3 main types of indicators in urban parks: perceptual, visual, and functional. The mental health and well-being indicator was also determined as the dependent indicator. Accordingly, for the research variables, several factors corresponding to the specific conditions of the study area were determined and used to design the questionnaire (Table 1).
Research indicators and affecting items that have been considered in the questionnaires.
Sampling Size
The statistical population included in this study were the visitors to the parks of Shano and Zaribar. Since exact data on the number of visitors to the city parks was not available, the sample size was determined using the Mitra-Lankford formula (Mitra and Lankford 1999). This formula can be applied when the population size in landscape studies is not known, and usually ‘e’ is considered to be 3% or less than 3%. In this study it was set at 3%. After substituting these values into the formula and performing the calculations, an appropriate sample size of 277 was obtained (Equation 1). The total number of respondents to the questionnaires was 277, and the configurations of the online questionnaire platform were carefully prepared to facilitate completion after 277 responses were submitted, thus eliminating the possibility of additional responses by participants. A reliable and valid sample size and method was used in this study, utilizing a known formula to calculate the number of participants. Therefore, the results are valid, confirming previous findings and also suggesting a comprehensive model that can be retested and confirmed with other researchers around the world.
(1)
Where P = 50% and e = 3.
Therefore, n = 277.
Sampling Method
A random sample was used in this study. Therefore, the most important factor in determining the sample size was that the number of participants should be large enough for statistical analysis. The larger the number of participants, the more robust the statistics (Suhardi 2006). The sample size should be large enough to perform a statistical analysis. According to Howell (2002), at least 30 participants are required to perform a statistical analysis. According to Mitra and Lankford’s formula (Mitra and Lankford 1999), a sample size with a sampling error of less than 5% is considered a reliable and valid sample to confirm previous studies and also to generalize the new results. Therefore, a sample size of 277 was chosen based on this formula.
An online method was used for the survey. Numerous studies have used online methods to gather public opinion (Žlender and Thompson 2017; Koh et al. 2022; Luo et al. 2022; Xie et al. 2020). The questionnaires were distributed via social media platforms such as Telegram, WhatsApp, and Instagram Messenger (Srivastav et al. 2021). The link to the online questionnaire was disseminated through social media platforms in city groups and information channels in Marivan City (Iran). Participants were asked to complete the questionnaire and were encouraged to share the link with others who were interested in participating. This approach is an example of using the snowballing technique on the internet to increase the reach of the survey by leveraging existing networks and connections.
Survey Procedure
The questionnaire contents were designed according to the indicators and items outlined in Table 1 for the two parks, Zaribar Waterfront and Shano Park. A separate set of questions was designed for each park, aligning with the respective indicators and components. The questionnaire was structured using a 5-point Likert scale (very high = 5; high = 4; medium = 3; low = 2; very low = 1). Collecting research data through traditional approaches (in-person, postal, or telephone surveys) can be costly and time-consuming. Collecting data through new technologies using the internet or electronic platforms (such as online surveys and email) offers a cost-effective alternative. These modern data collection methods can gather a substantial amount of data from participants in a short period of time. Conducting an online survey allows access to a large and geographically diverse population (Regmi et al. 2016). In general, online questionnaires provide reliable and convenient data, safeguard against data loss, and facilitate the transfer of data to analytical tools such as Excel or SPSS for researchers (Carbonaro and Bainbridge 2000; Ilieva et al. 2002). Since online datasets can potentially skew respondents towards younger age groups, this may reduce representativeness and, consequently, the reliability of findings (Koh et al. 2022). Approximately 1/3 of the data, 86 respondents, was collected using this method (from 2023 August 8 to September 21). In order to achieve optimal output and desired research outcomes in terms of respondents’ demographic data, the remaining questionnaires were administered in person by researchers within the study areas from August 24 to September 2. Another innovation in this research was the facilitation of questionnaire distribution through a hybrid approach, combining in-person and online methods. To streamline the process and economize on time and costs, an online questionnaire was designed with a QR code assigned for easy access. Park visitors were encouraged to contribute by scanning the QR code using their smartphones. This method eliminated the need for participants to wait for questionnaire completion and resulted in the rapid acquisition of a substantial volume of survey responses. Questionnaire settings were configured to allow each respondent to provide only one set of responses via their smartphone. Additionally, mandatory questions were defined to ensure that no questions were left unanswered. The colorful background for the online questionnaire was designed to create a friendly vista to encourage respondents to participate in the survey. In the online questionnaire, respondents could register their answers at any time and place, and due to the absence of the researcher, there was no psychological effect on the respondents. Consequently, more accurate answers were likely to be recorded in the online questionnaire.
Data Analysis Method
This research utilized 2 software applications, Smart PLS 3 and SPSS 26, for analysis. Specifically, SPSS was employed for descriptive statistics, while structural equation modeling (SEM) with a partial least squares (PLS) approach was conducted using the Smart PLS software (Salleh et al. 2022; Mousapour 2023). The application of PLS-SEM in the Smart PLS software is particularly advantageous when working with small sample sizes and non-normally distributed data (Ringle et al. 2020; Hair et al. 2021). The primary reasons for adopting the Partial Least Squares approach include its strong predictive capabilities, its suitability for handling complex models with a substantial number of observed and latent variables, and its utility when researchers aim to develop novel theories or models that were previously non-existent (i.e., new model development)(Jarvis et al. 2003; Henseler et al. 2009; Hair et al. 2010). Another significant advantage driving researchers towards this approach is its ability to use single-item measurement models in contrast to other similar software tools that necessitate a minimum of 3 observable variables per latent variable (Hair et al. 2010). The utilization of structural equation modeling in the present research stems from the novelty of the theoretical model and the inherent complexity of resolving the research questions posed by the model. SEM, implemented through the Smart-PLS software, was chosen as the preferred analytical approach due to its ability to handle non-parametric data. Moreover, SEM, particularly when implemented through Smart-PLS, offers robust predictive power for the proposed theoretical model. This attribute is of paramount importance in deciphering the intricate relationships and dependencies embedded within the research framework, ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the model’s predictive capabilities.
Results
Descriptive Statistics of Research
In this study, 64.6% of the respondents were male, while 35.4% were female, with the majority of respondents being married (63.8%). Respondents were categorized into different age groups, namely the age ranges of 20 to 34, 35 to 49, and 50 and above, consisting of 110, 102, and 56 individuals, respectively. In terms of educational attainment, a significant portion of the respondents held a bachelor’s degree (43%). Furthermore, concerning their economic status, a substantial proportion of the respondents fell into the middle-income category (58.5%) (Table 2).
Demographic characteristics of respondents.
Structural Analysis
The Role of Urban Parks for Improving Mental Health and Well-Being
To investigate the research issue, structural equation modeling using partial least squares was employed with the assistance of Smart-PLS software. In order to analyze and assess the role of urban parks in enhancing mental health and well-being, the research was conducted based on theoretical foundations and prior studies, as outlined in the research methodology.
Reliability and Validity of Research Indicators
To assess the reliability and validity of research indicators in the Smart-PLS software, we employed the output from the PLS Algorithm report, focusing on the evaluation of 2 crucial measures: Cronbach’s alpha (α) and composite reliability (CR). It is imperative that Cronbach’s alpha exceed 0.7 to be considered acceptable (Litwin and Fink 1995; Ghozali and Latan 2015). Additionally, composite reliability is akin to Cronbach’s alpha (α) but is superior in terms of internal consistency, as it leverages the loading of items derived from the theoretical model (Fornell and Larcker 1981). As indicated in Figure 3, all the indicators in this study yielded values exceeding 0.7, thus meeting the threshold for acceptance.
(2)
(3)
Construct reliability and validity.
The average variance extracted (AVE) serves to describe the validity of indicators, and an AVE greater than 0.5 is deemed acceptable (Chin 1998; Hair et al. 2011). Meanwhile, Fornell and Larcker (1981) have posited that if the AVE is below 0.5, but the composite reliability exceeds 0.6, the structural model’s validity is still considered sufficient. In this study, all indicators yielded AVE values exceeding 0.5, with the exception of the perceptual construct. Given that the CR value for this particular construct is 0.813, the AVE value remains valid.
(4)
Testing the Quality of the Research Structural Model: R2 Value
In the analysis of structural models using the partial least squares approach, the R2 value is a fundamental metric for assessing latent endogenous variables. This indicator demonstrates the percentage of variance in the latent endogenous variable explained by the exogenous variables. Values of 0.19, 0.33, and 0.67 for latent endogenous variables in the structural model are typically described as weak, moderate, and substantial, respectively (Chin 1998; Henseler et al. 2009). In the structural model of this study, as depicted in Figure 4, the R2 value for the dependent indicator, “mental health and well-being,” is 0.732. This implies that the independent indicators of the research, namely perceptual, functional, and visual, have collectively accounted for 73% of the variance in the dependent indicator. This substantial value underscores the high quality of the structural model in the current research.
Path coefficients of structural equation model.
Path Coefficients and Correlation Between Independent and Dependent Indicators
The term “path coefficients” refers to standardized betas in linear regression. Path coefficients must be examined in terms of their magnitude, sign, and significance. Positive path coefficients (positive betas) indicate direct relationships between latent internal and external variables. In contrast, negative path coefficients (negative betas) signify an inverse relationship between latent internal and external variables. The magnitude of this value reflects the strength of the relationship. In terms of correlation, path coefficients typically range between −1 and +1, with coefficients close to −1 indicating strong negative relationships, and coefficients closer to +1 indicating strong positive relationships (Hair et al. 2021). The significance of path coefficients depends on their magnitude and the direction of the beta coefficient in the model. If the obtained value exceeds the minimum statistic at the confidence level considered (e.g., 90%, 95%, or 99%), the relationship or hypothesis is confirmed. At the 90%, 95%, and 99% significance levels, this value is compared to the minimum statistics of 1.64, 1.96, and 2.58, respectively (Henseler et al. 2009; Hair et al. 2011). The structural model’s path coefficients are presented in Figure 4 and Table 3.
Results of Path Analysis and Hypothesis Testing.
In accordance with the results obtained in this structural model, the relationship between the perceptual indicators and mental health and well-being, with a path coefficient of 0.291, signifies a direct association. Consistent with Figure 5, this relationship is confirmed at the 99% confidence level with a t-statistic of 4.778. Therefore, of the perceptual indicators, the items aromatic plant species, soundscape (the rustling of leaves, the sound of birds and water), natural forms and elements in the landscape or natural attractions, proper lighting at night, and use of native plants and local symbols have the most significant impact on the mental health and well-being of users of Zaribar Waterfront Park and Shano Park.
T-statistics of indicators and items of the structural equation model.
The relationship between visual indicators and mental health and well-being, with a path coefficient of 0.458, is positively significant, as confirmed by a direct relationship with a t-statistic of 8.243 at the 99% confidence level. In this regard, visual indicators such as a legitimate and attractive space without confusion in the space, diversity of plants and animals, continuous and regular lighting, and diversity and attractiveness in the color and form of different plants have the most significant effect on the mental health and well-being of users of Zaribar Waterfront Parkand Shano Park.
The relationship between the independent variable functional indicators and the dependent variable mental health and well-being, with a path coefficient of 0.201 and a t-statistic of 4.175, is confirmed at the 99% confidence level. The most important functional indicators affecting the mental health and well-being of users of Zaribar Waterfront Park and Shano Park include platforms for sports activities and walking, facilities and entertainment for all age groups, accessible and usable green space for all groups of people, and the existence of gathering places for social interactions.
Based on the findings, it has been established that the 3 variables, functional, perceptual, and visual, as independent variables, significantly influence the mental health and well-being (dependent variable) of urban park users in Marivan City. Therefore, all these indicators have close associations with improving the quality and enhancing the level of well-being and mental tranquility of users. These findings indicate that each of the mentioned indicators has played a prominent role.
Furthermore, the relationship between the visual variable and the perceptual and functional variables, with path coefficients of 0.398 and 0.719, respectively, is confirmed with t-statistics of 6.633 and 21.410 at the 99% confidence level. Additionally, the relationship between the 2 independent variables, perceptual and functional, with a path coefficient of 0.406 and a t-statistic of 6.832, is confirmed at the 99% confidence level. Their relationship, as shown in the structural model results in Figure 4, indicates indirect relationships, meaning that the visual indicator simultaneously influences both perceptual and functional indicators. This is because these factors have closely interconnected relationships, and the relationship between the perceptual and functional variables is also similar.
Effective Indicators and Items in Mental Health and Well-Being
Table 4 displays the t-statistics and p-values for the examined research items, indicating that these values were calculated from the means of the questions for each item. The results indicate that the items investigated for assessing research indicators in Zaribar Waterfront Park and Shano Park have had significant effects on the mental health and well-being of the citizens of Marivan City. Since all these values are higher than 2.58, following the research conducted by Henseler et al. (2009), these items are statistically significant at a 99% confidence level. The visual indicator, with a path coefficient of 0.458 and a t-statistic of 8.243, has been the most influential indicator of mental health and well-being in the urban parks of Marivan City. Following in order, the perceptual indicator, with a path coefficient of 0.291 and a t-statistic of 4.778, as well as the functional indicator with a path coefficient of 0.201 and a t-statistic of 4.175, held the second and third ranks in terms of significance. Within the perceptual indicator, the most influential items included positive stimulation of the senses of hearing and smell. In the visual indicator, 2 items, legibility and continuity of space and biodiversity, had a greater impact on mental health and well-being. Additionally, in the functional indicator, physical activity and gender justice were the most influential items in terms of impact.
T-statistics of research indicators and items.
The Relationship Between Green Spaces and Different Sociodemographics
Many studies have examined the connection between green space and different sociodemographic traits, but little is known about how men’s and women’s views of green space differ in their effects on health and well-being (Li et al. 2020). According to the results of this research, gender justice has had a significant impact on mental health and well-being. Because of the decline in human interaction with the natural world, the value of urban green spaces in improving the quality of life for residents has never been greater. Urban green spaces need to be usable and accessible to all societal groups, particularly those of various genders (Rahimi et al. 2023). According to Coggin and Pieterse (2012), a city is a place where a wide variety of social groupings coexist. To create a high-quality urban environment, it is imperative to strive for a setting that is mindful of these distinctions. Green spaces are an essential component of cities that are needed by all social groups, regardless of gender or socioeconomic position, due to their strategic relevance for quality of life and urban livability (Breuste and Rahimi 2015). The examination conducted through the utilization of the SPSS software, employing the Mann-Whitney U test, revealed that there were no statistically significant differences between genders concerning the item of gender equity and its impact on mental health and well-being. This assessment was made in light of various factors, such as the accessibility and usability of green spaces for all demographic groups. Based on these findings, it can be inferred that one of the influential factors in the correlation between gender equity, mental health, and overall well-being in the urban parks of Marivan City is the absence of disparities and limitations in access and utilization between males and females (Table 5).
Mann-Whitney U test for gender justice item.
Discussion and Conclusion
This study aimed to investigate the impact of 2 urban parks, Shano Park and Zaribar Waterfront Park, as nature-based solutions for mental health and well-being based on the experiences and perceptions of the residents of Marivan City. The overall findings of this research are in line with previous studies in the field of positive effects of urban green spaces on mental health and well-being (van den Bosch and Sang 2017; Vujcic et al. 2017; MacKinnon et al. 2019; Kolokotsa et al. 2020; Coventry et al. 2021; Sohaib et al. 2022; Pereira et al. 2023; Singh et al. 2023). The practical significance of this research lies in its potential to inform urban park design and management practices. By identifying the specific visual, functional, and conceptual elements that positively correlate with mental health indicators, park planners and managers can implement targeted interventions. The following section will discuss and analyze the most significant and influential results obtained in the two sections.
Functional Aspect of Urban Parks and Mental Health and Well-Being
The impact of urban parks as nature-based solutions from the point of view of benefits related to the fiinctional physical health of the people of Marivan City in this research, according to people’s perceptions, showed that items such as platforms for social interactions, physical activity, justice of age groups, and gender justice in Marivan urban parks have had positive effects on mental health and well-being. Among them, the items of gender justice and physical activities were the most influential. In summary, this study unveiled a favorable connection between urban parks and the benefits of public physical exercise and mental health. In this context, a study was conducted by García de Jalón et al. (2020) to evaluate the benefits of green space on physical activity and the economic value obtained from its health. The study emphasized the financial advantages and disadvantages of giving people access to urban green areas through a range of strategies, such as lowering noise and air pollution, and the positive health consequences of physical exercise. It was calculated that 0.010677 QALYs (quality-adjusted life years; one quality-adjusted life year equals one year of life in perfect health) per person annually would result from 30 minutes of moderate-to-intense physical exercise each week. The monetary worth of the physical activity was assessed at €597,033 over a 20-year time horizon based on an estimated social value of 1 QALY = €22,400. Therefore, the practical implication lies in creating an environment that ensures equitable access and enjoyment of park facilities, fostering a sense of inclusivity and community well-being. In conclusion, the practical significance of these findings lies in the tangible and actionable insights they provide for urban planners, policymakers, and community stakeholders. Recognizing urban parks as integral components of the urban landscape, with the potential to enhance mental health and well-being through social interactions, physical activities, and justice considerations, enables informed decision-making for creating healthier and more inclusive urban environments. Designing park spaces that facilitate physical activity, social interaction, and relaxation thus positively impacts mental well-being. This underscores the practical importance of urban parks in serving as communal spaces that facilitate meaningful social exchanges. Therefore, urban parks serve as practical settings that contribute to the physical fitness and overall health of the community.
Perceptual and Visual Aspects of Urban Parks and Mental Health and Well-Being
Based on the findings of the research, perceptual and visual indicators have a direct and significant impact on the mental health and well-being of citizens in the city of Marivan. Among these indicators, in the perceptual category, which pertains to multi-sensory perceptions of individuals, the urban parks in Marivan City were found to allocate the highest levels of positive sensory stimuli, particularly in the auditory and olfactory domains, as reported by the city’s residents. Consequently, it can be asserted that these sensory elements have had a more pronounced influence on the mental well-being and overall welfare of citizens. This is attributed to the presence of infrastructure and amenities within the city, as well as the level of acceptance and utilization of urban parks by the local population. Numerous studies corroborate the findings of this research, affirming that auditory aspects encompassing the soundscape, such as the rustling of leaves and the sound of birds and water, along with olfactory aspects, particularly the presence of aromatic plant species, exert substantial and positive effects on the mental well-being and overall welfare of individuals in urban parks (Gascon et al. 2017; Arslan et al. 2018; White et al. 2020; Jiang et al. 2021). The study emphasizes the practical significance of multi-sensory perceptions, particularly auditory and olfactory stimuli, in Marivan urban parks. Residents reported the highest levels of positive sensory experiences in these domains, signaling a tangible connection between sensory elements and mental well-being. Recognizing the role of infrastructure, park amenities, and community acceptance, the practical implication lies in the deliberate incorporation of sensory-rich elements within urban parks to enhance the mental well-being of citizens. The practical implications suggest the integration of fragrant plants within urban park landscapes to harness their healing potential, aligning with the historical and contemporary understanding of plant-based therapies.
Desirable environmental sounds in the urban parks of Marivan City, referred to as the soundscape, encompassing the rustling of leaves and the sounds of birds and water, have had a positive impact on the mental well-being and overall welfare of citizens. Multiple studies (Gascon et al. 2017; White et al. 2020) corroborate this finding. In several empirical studies, water-based sounds, either in isolation (Zhang et al. 2021) or in combination with other natural sounds such as bird songs (Annerstedt et al. 2013), have been found to incline towards reducing stress more rapidly than urban noises, silence, or conditions specifically designed for stress reduction, such as soothing music (Huisman et al. 2012). Furthermore, the addition of pleasant water sounds, such as waterfalls and fountains, to less pleasant traffic noises (effectively increasing overall volume), can also enhance positive ratings (Rådsten Ekman et al. 2015). The findings align with prior studies and suggest that deliberate efforts to enhance visual diversity, such as installing bird boxes and diversifying flowers, can positively influence the psychological reactions of park visitors.
The visual aspects in the urban parks of Marivan City, including the biodiversity of plants and animals, have had positive effects on the mental health and well-being of the people. This finding is consistent with prior studies (Sandifer et al. 2015; Marselle et al. 2019; Cameron et al. 2020; Marselle et al. 2021). Zaribar Waterfront Park and its associated complex, known for their rich biodiversity of 257 plant species (Khorasani et al. 2014) and diverse animal population (Khoram and Hoshmand 2012), have garnered visual appeal and ecological diversity. This, in turn, has had positive effects on the well-being and health of the city’s residents. Similarly, Shano Park, characterized by its substantial plant diversity and, to some extent, animal diversity, adheres to this pattern of natural abundance. More favorable psychological reactions have been associated with higher levels of biodiversity (Cracknell et al. 2016; Wood et al. 2018). By installing bird boxes and diversifying the flowers in the park, Shwartz et al. (2014) boosted biodiversity in small parks and discovered that visitors felt better about their well-being when biodiversity rose (except from insects). The collective findings from numerous empirical studies confirm the broader practical significance of perceptual and visual aspects in green spaces. The positive impact extends to a reduction in negative emotions, stress alleviation, and an increase in positive psychological states such as creativity, happiness, and vitality. Therefore, the result of the study revealed that visual factors are more effective than the other green area factors. The implications for urban planning and park design are significant, suggesting that the intentional cultivation of perceptual and visual elements can contribute to the psychological well-being of city residents. In these terms, city planners and landscape architects can create livable and peaceful environments by paying more attention to visual features in their plans and designing green areas that will appeal more to the sense of sight.
Numerous empirical studies have assessed the effects of perceptual and visual aspects in green spaces and urban parks, with findings indicating a positive impact on psychological well-being. These effects encompass a reduction in depression, dejection, anger, aggression, frustration, and hostility while simultaneously contributing to the alleviation of stress. Additionally, the presence of green spaces has been associated with an increase in creativity, happiness, calmness, comfort, refreshment, vitality, and vigor (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989b; Morita et al. 2007; Sugiyama et al. 2008; Nisbet et al. 2011; Kamitsis and Francis 2013; MacKerron and Mourato 2013; Lee et al. 2014; Tyrväinen et al. 2014). In conclusion, the practical significance of these research findings lies in their applicability to urban planning, landscape design, and community well-being initiatives. By understanding and leveraging the impact of multi-sensory perceptions, the healing properties of plants, positive soundscapes, and visual diversity, urban parks can be intentionally designed to enhance the mental health and overall welfare of citizens, fostering a more vibrant and resilient community.
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