A Survey of Urban Tree Management in New Zealand

Financial and Human Resources

Undoubtedly, the availability of resources, both financial and human, has a major bearing on the extent to which a planned, systematic, and integrated approach to urban forest management can be achieved. A theme running throughout the results was the scarcity of resources available to many LA tree programs. Respondents frequently regarded insufficient resources as being a significant threat to the efficient and effective delivery of their LA’s tree program. The budget-setting process further challenged this situation, with many of the LAs indicating that tree management budgets were not being developed to reflect a planned level of service for the tree program, but were simply formulated on the basis of previous allocations. Considerable variations in the total annual LA tree management budgets were identified, which ranged from NZD $5,000 to $1.2 million. Three respondents stated that no specific budget for tree management had been established in their local authority.

Considerable differences were identified in the amount LAs were spending per capita. Values ranged from 57 cents to 15 dollars, with the majority of the LAs spending $7 or less.

The mean value of the number of LA officers involved in a tree management role, expressed as full-time equivalents (FTEs) was 2.98. The number of FTEs ranged from 0.05 to 10; 35% of LAs employed 0.5 of a FTE or less. Although care is needed with the interpretation of these results, research in England (Britt and Johnston 2008) suggests that LAs with less than one FTE allocated to a tree management role were unlikely to be in a position to develop a planned, systematic, and integrated approach to urban tree management.

Income from external sources can play a significant role in helping develop and manage LA tree programs. Sixty-eight percent of LAs had not received any funding from external sources for tree-related activities or services in the current (2010–2011) or the previous financial year. A notable exception was a LA that received $300,000 of external funding for its tree program in 2009–2010 and an additional $150,000 in 2010–2011.

Thirty percent of the officers involved in a tree management role were female, which compares favorably to the 21% identified in a similar study in England (Britt and Johnston 2008). A significant feature of the results was the considerable length of time officers had spent in their current posts and in a tree management role. Fifty-two percent of officers had been in post for at least five years, with 17% having been in post for over 20 years. Thirty-eight percent of officers had between 10 and 15 years of experience in a tree management role and 23% had in excess of 20 years of experience. It is interesting to note that despite the officers having a tree management role, 74% of their job titles did not mention trees or tree management, suggesting that many of the officers have other responsibilities and were not involved in tree management in a full-time or dedicated role. There was considerable variation in the professional background and qualifications of the officers who were involved in a tree management role, with horticulture, parks and reserves, landscape, and environmental management all featured in the results. Only 30% of the LA officers stated they had a professional arboriculture qualification, and a limited number, 28%, considered arboriculture to be their main professional background.

Planned Management

Understanding the nature and extent of the urban forest in a local authority’s district is an essential first stage in developing a strategic and planned approach for managing this resource. One of the most significant results of the study was that many LAs lacked some basic information about the trees in their district. The majority were not able to accurately state the percentage of their district covered by trees and the extent these trees were publicly or privately owned. Many LAs only held limited information about their publicly owned trees, with considerable variation in the number and type of tree surveys carried out in the last five years.

It is widely accepted that the management of the urban forest should be directed by a long-term strategy or plan (Clark et al. 1997; Booth 2005; Schwab 2009; Van Wassenaer et al. 2012). Although many LAs reported that they had a relevant strategy in place, typically, these did not support the development of a comprehensive, planned and integrated approach to tree management. This was because the lack of basic information about the urban forest was undermining the planning process, making it impossible for many LAs to identify meaningful objectives and develop appropriate budgets, management plans, and performance measures. Based on the results of the χ² test, City Councils were no more likely to develop a tree strategy than District Councils (χ² = 2.85, df1, P > 0.05).

Systematic Management

A systematic approach is essential for efficiently and effectively undertaking many of the operations involved in the practical management of the trees in a LA’s district (Kielbaso et al. 1988; Johnston and Rushton 1998). This is particularly important in towns and cities, because for trees to exist in the harsh urban environment there is an almost total reliance on humans to plant and subsequently manage the tree throughout its life (Clark et al. 1997).

The unpredictable nature of many of the factors that can affect trees growing in towns and cities, such as severe weather events, make it inevitable that an element of a LA’s tree maintenance needs to be performed on demand. Despite this, it should be possible for LAs operating under normal circumstances, with appropriate levels of funding, to schedule the majority of their tree maintenance work in advance. The amount of tree work that LAs are able to schedule is a key indicator of the level of systematic management being achieved. Sixty-six percent of LAs indicated that the amount of tree work being scheduled in advance was below the 40% threshold originally suggested by Kielbaso et al. (1988), which is generally regarded as being indicative of a systematic approach. If the threshold was increased to 50% (which has been suggested given the advances in urban tree management), 79% of LAs would be below this level. The results of the t-test suggest a significant association exists between the type of council and the amount of tree work being scheduled in advance (t = 5.929, df = 21 P < 0.01) with City Councils more likely to schedule greater amounts of tree work than District Councils.

The extent and frequency with which LAs inspect their trees directly affects their ability to develop a systematic approach to managing this public resource. As well as providing the data needed to develop and manage future work programs, inspections play a significant role in managing tree-related risks and in the event of litigation can be a fundamental part of a LA’s defense. Considerable variation between the levels of inspections conducted by LAs was identified. Although differences between inspection regimes are inevitable, given the availability of resources and the nature and extent of a LA’s tree population, considerable scope exists to make inspection regimes more risk-orientated. A significant feature of the results was that 60% of the LAs did not answer the question in the survey that related to the coverage and frequency of the LAs tree inspection program. A similar situation was encountered by Britt and Johnston (2008), and in this case, it was attributed to the possible legal ramifications associated with irregular and infrequent inspection regimes, despite the assurance of anonymity for LAs in the published results.

The ability to plan, store, and manage tree data is significantly improved by using a computerized tree management system. Although 40% of LAs indicated they were doing so, the results show considerable variability in the way and the extent these systems were being used. Traditional uses, such as maintaining inventories and dealing with enquiries, were well represented, but the use of systems to schedule tree work, capture tree data on site, and use GIS functions was relatively limited. Based on the results of the χ² test, a computerized tree management system was more likely to be used in a city rather than by a District Council (χ² = 5.304, df1, P < 0.05).

LA tree maintenance can generate substantial amounts of debris (brash) and timber. The methods and systems used to dispose of, use, or convert this brash and timber indicates if a systematic approach has been developed to manage an important and potentially expensive aspect of urban forestry. The majority of LAs were chipping most of their brash. Only 22% of LAs reported burning an element of their waste and 56% indicated that some of their brash was being sent to a landfill. Considerable scope exists to convert more of the wood arising from tree management operations for use as timber products, with LAs indicating less than 5% of their timber is currently being converted (a process that can generate additional income and help promote the green credentials of a LA’s tree management activities).

While many LAs may not have the resources to systematically maintain the majority of their mature trees, reduced levels of post-planting maintenance can be an indicator that LAs are finding it particularly difficult to develop any significant level of systematic management. This can be caused by either chronic under-funding of the LA’s tree program or simply the result of ambitious planting schemes that are not subsequently supported by sufficiently-high maintenance budgets. Although 33% of LAs were carrying out high levels of post-planting maintenance, the results do raise some concerns. Thirty-three percent of LAs were carrying out post-planting maintenance on less than half of their newly planted trees and 12% of LAs indicated that no post-planting maintenance was being carried out. Given the harsh nature of the urban environment, a lack of post-planting maintenance is likely to increase tree mortality rates and result in wasted planting and establishment costs.

The importance LAs attach to a range of tree selection criteria can provide useful insight into the concerns affecting LA tree management programs. It can also show the extent LAs are following a structured decision-making process when replacement or additional trees are being selected. The ratings allocated by respondents to a range of tree selection criteria highlighted considerable variability in the priorities being attached to the different factors. The ratings suggest that the ultimate size and long-term maintenance costs associated with a species were particularly significant factors in the decision-making process. Although these are logical considerations, the results raised an interesting point. The guidance notes issued with the questionnaire stressed that the ultimate size refers to difficulties beyond normal form and function, meaning that other social factors, for example, pressure from the public, has contributed to trees with a smaller ultimate size being selected for locations that could, in theory, accommodate a larger tree. This reflects a similar situation identified by Britt and Johnston (2008) in their research in England.

Another interesting feature of the results was the level of importance attached to matching the origin of tree species to the ethnicity of the community. Despite having considerable benefits in terms of promoting social integration and cohesion (Johnston and Shimada 2004), this was not considered a priority in some LAs but considered a very high priority in others. The reasons for this are unclear, but given the social diversity in many of New Zealand’s communities, this is likely to be a social aspect of tree management that is underdeveloped in some LAs.

LAs also need to develop a systematic approach for managing activities and services in relation to the privately owned trees in their district. The results suggest there is scope for LAs to be more proactive in identifying and protecting trees that have significant amenity value. In addition, many LA officers felt that due to resource constraints their LA only had a limited ability to enforce tree protection policies and measures, particularly when the trees were located on or near development sites.

Integrated Management

Managing the trees in a local authority’s district in a holistic and coordinated way can only be achieved if a wide range of public, private, and voluntary sector organizations work in partnership (Rowntree 1995; Grey 1996; Clark et al. 1997; Kuchelmeister 1998; Johnston and Rushton 1998; Konijnendijk et al. 2005; Schwab 2009). An integrated approach is also essential within the LA itself. This is particularly relevant as many policy areas, such as street design and park maintenance, are closely linked to the development of a vibrant urban forest. Many respondents regarded the lack of integrated management as being a significant weakness in the delivery of their LA’s tree program. There is considerable scope to improve the level of coordination between LAs and other public sector organizations that are either involved in managing trees or whose activities can have a direct effect on the urban forest. A common theme identified in the results was the conflict between developing quality and extensive urban forests and the needs and dominance of traditional grey infrastructure, such as roads, sidewalks, and the provision of utilities. Respondents highlighted that trees were frequently being regarded as an expendable resource, with little or no consideration given to their value or retention when infrastructure schemes were being designed, constructed, and maintained.

Opportunities also exist to develop the degree to which LAs were managing the trees in their districts in partnership with organizations in the private and voluntary sector. The results suggest that LAs could be doing more to engage with businesses and major private and institutional landowners in their district. These groups can play a significant role by providing land and a range of other resources, such as donating money and time to help manage the urban forest. This is particularly relevant in the current social climate with many organizations keen to be involved in community-based environmental projects, promoting a green and public-spirited image.

The majority of LAs, 72%, did not have a structured framework, such as a district-wide tree forum or committee, dedicated to helping plan and co-ordinate the activities of the various groups that had an interest in how the trees in their district were being managed. Although 18% of LAs indicated that a group had been established, the results suggest that in many cases there was scope to extend the type and number of groups represented.

Involving the community in managing the trees in a LA’s district is essential in securing public support for the LA’s tree program and influencing the way privately owned trees are managed. A balanced approached should be based on three key elements: education, consultation, and practical participation (Britt and Johnston 2008). An aspect of community involvement where the LAs were performing particularly well was the advance notification to residents of major tree management activities, which by their nature can often be contentious and highly emotive. Another encouraging feature of the results was the extent that LAs routinely consult with the community, using formal consultation frameworks, when new tree management policies and plans were being prepared. LAs were also involved in a wide range of community-based tree-related events and activities, such as tree planting schemes, distributing free or subsidized trees, and providing technical advice to residents. Although these types of activities are undoubtedly useful, other forms of involvement seem to be used only sparingly, such as school-related activities and public festivals. Although these results were encouraging, concerns raised in the SWOT analysis indicated that more needs to be done. LA officers highlighted a lack of political and public support as being a significant threat to the development and maintenance of an extensive and vibrant urban forest.

An area that can be particularly influential in shaping public opinion, perception, and attitude is the coverage given to tree-related matters by the local media. Clearly, the potential for negative coverage to undermine public support for the LA’s tree program makes it important for LAs, as much as possible, to be proactive in presenting positive news about tree related events and activities to the media. Although it is encouraging that 64% of LAs stated that they either received frequent (on average once a fortnight) or moderate (on average once every two months) media coverage, there is considerable scope for LAs to improve their performance in this area with only 28% stating their media coverage was usually positive.