Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
Root system of field-grown tree, three growing seasons after transplanting to landscape. An average of 115 roots > 3 mm diameter grew into the top 25 cm of landscape soil. Note roots growing radially from edge of original root ball.
- Figure 2.
Root system of tree from 170 L container, either sliced or not when planted, three growing seasons after planting into landscape. An average of 55 roots grew into the top 25 cm of landscape soil. Note roots growing along root ball periphery tangent to trunk before entering landscape soil.
- Figure 3.
Log10 overturning bending moment (kNm) required to tilt trunk base 10 degrees to Log10 trunk diameter 15 cm from ground for four planting treatments. Log10 MB (kNm) = 3.40 Log10 trunk diameter (cm) – 2.86; R2 = 0.93; intercept and slope P < 0.001.
- Figure 4.
Calculated trunk bending stress (kN/m2) 15 cm from ground resulting from pulling trees to various angles for four planting treatments. Bending stress = (pulling force × distance from pulling point to inclinometer × trunk radius at inclinometer) ÷ (0.25π × trunk radius4). Planting treatments with a different letter are statistically different (P < 0.05), for a given angle in degrees.
- Figure 5.
Trunk tilt (resting angle) 15 cm from ground immediately following pulling trees to various angles then releasing for four planting treatments (asterisks indicate means for a given angle with different letters are statistically different at P < 0.05)
- Figure 6.
Root system configuration of 170 L container-grown trees when planted into landscape. Note roots were deflected down and around at the position of the 57 L container. No large roots extend from the trunk to edge of 170 L root ball.
- Figure 7.
Root system of field-grown tree at planting into landscape showing many roots growing directly from trunk to edge of root ball.
Tables
- Table 1.
Root cross-sectional area (CSA), root number, root diameter, and tree subsidence on Cathedral Oak live oak, three growing seasons following planting.
Planting treatmentz Trunk caliper when pulled (cm) Total root CSAy (cm2) Root CSA (cm2)/cm2 trunk CSAx Total root no.w Root no./cm2 trunk CSA Root diameterv (mm) Root diam. (mm)/cm2 trunk CSA Diameter (mm) of 10 largest roots Tree subsidenceu (mm) 57 L container 85c 20.1bt 0.34bt 36ct 0.62abt 7.3bt 0.13at 12.8bt −5 (−22 to +3)c 170 L container/ not sliced 113b 27.7b 0.27b 55b 0.54b 6.7b 0.07b 14.1b −2 (−13 to +5)b 170 L container/ sliced 115b 25.9b 0.24b 55b 0.52b 6.7b 0.06b 13.5b −3 (−13 to +3)b Field grown 132a 105.6a 0.69a 115a 0.76a 8.3a 0.06b 25.4a +2 (−5 to +16)a ↵z57 L container = 29 mm caliper trees from 57 L container; 170 L container/not sliced = 67 mm caliper trees from 170 L container with no root ball slicing at planting; 170 L container/sliced = 67 mm caliper trees from 170 L container with root ball sliced top to bottom in 6 places at planting; field grown = 80 mm caliper trees dug from field soil, all planted March 2005.
↵yTotal CSA of roots >3 mm diameter growing into landscape soil from the top 25 cm of root ball measured 5 cm beyond edge of root ball.
↵xTrunk CSA measured 15 cm from ground.
↵wTotal number of roots >3 mm diameter 5 cm beyond the edge of root ball.
↵vMean diameter for roots >3 mm diameter growing into landscape soil from the top 25 cm of root ball measured 5 cm beyond edge of root ball.
↵uMean (and range) subsidence (−= tree sunk lower into ground; += tree lifted out of ground) three growing seasons after planting on 30 trees per treatment; means in a column followed by a different letter are statistically different at P < 0.05.
↵tMean of seven trees per treatment; means in a column followed by a different letter are statistically different at P < 0.05.
- Table 2.
Calibration of trunk tilt in degrees from unloaded starting position 15 cm from ground with wind speed for Cathedral Oak planted from 170 L containers and transplanted from the field.
Wind speed m·s−1 (mph) Trunk till (degrees) 170 L containers Field grown 18 (40) 4.1az 0.8b 27 (60) 8.9a 2.3b 36 (80) 9.2a 2.3b 45 (100) 10.3a 2.8b ↵zMeans from two replicates in a row with different letters are statistically different with t-test at P < 0.01.
- Table 3.
Number of trunks that visibly cracked and trunk bending moment during pulling tests of four planting treatments, three growing seasons after landscape installation.
Planting treatmentz No. of trunks cracked during pulling test Bending moment to 10 degrees trunk tilt (kNm) 57 L container 2ybx 2.3c 170 L container/ not sliced 0b 5.5b 170 L container/ sliced 0b 5.6b Field grown 5wa 12.4a ↵z57 L container = 29 mm caliper trees from 57 L container; 170 L container/not sliced = 67 mm caliper trees from 170 L container with no root ball slicing at planting; 170 L container/sliced = 67 mm caliper trees from 170 L container with root ball sliced top to bottom in six places at planting; field grown = 80 mm caliper trees dug from field soil, all planted March 2005.
↵yTrunks cracked as trees were pulled to 15 or 20 degrees.
↵xSeven trees per treatment; means in a column followed by a different letter are statistically different at P < 0.05.
↵wThree trunks cracked while attempting to pull trunk base to 15 degrees; two cracked while attempting to pull to 20 degrees.
- Table 4.
Root (>3 mm diameter) attributes correlated with trunk bending stressz during tree pulling tests on 28 trees from four planting treatments combined.
Trunk bending stress when trunk pulled to 10 degrees from vertical Maximumy trunk bending stress Root attributes Pearson’s correlation coefficientx Root CSA (windward 1/2)w 0.68 0.31 Total root CSA 0.64 0.31 Root CSA (0–13 cm soil depth) 0.61 0.31 Root CSA (windward 1/2, 0–13 cm soil depth)w 0.60 0.31 Root CSA (14–25 cm soil depth) 0.59 NS Diameter of largest root (windward 1/6)v 0.59 0.32 Root CSA (windward 1/6)v 0.58 0.31 Root CSA (windward 1/2, 14–25 cm soil depth)w 0.58 NS Total root diameter 0.57 0.48 Diameter of largest root (windward 1/6, 0–13 cm soil depth)v 0.57 0.43 Mean root diameter (windward 1/2)w NS 0.53 Number of roots (windward 1/2)w 0.51 NS Largest root diameter (windward 1/6, 14–25 cm soil depth)v 0.46 NS Largest root diameter (leeward 1/6, 14–25 cm soil depth)u NS 0.46 Total root CSA area (leeward 1/6, 14–25 cm soil depth)u NS 0.45 Total number of roots 0.45 NS Number of roots (windward 1/6)v 0.45 NS Root number (windward 1/2)w 0.45 NS Root CSA (windward 1/6)v 0.45 0.31 Number of roots (14–25 cm soil depth) 0.44 NS Number of roots (0–13 cm soil depth) 0.39 NS Number of roots (leeward 1/2)t 0.36 NS Root diameter (windward 1/6)v 0.33 0.53 ↵zTrunk bending stress = (pulling force × length × trunk radius) ÷ (0.25π × trunk radius4).
↵yMaximum trunk bending stress encountered as trees were pulled to 25 degrees trunk tilt in five degree increments.
↵xSignificantly correlated at P < 0.01; NS indicates not significant at P < 0.01.
↵wRoots in the 180 degree section opposite pulling winch.
↵vRoots in the 60 degree section opposite pulling winch.
↵uRoots in the 60 degree section toward pulling winch.
↵tRoots in the 180 degree section toward pulling winch.
- Table 5.
Pearson’s correlation coefficient between trunk bending moment or trunk bending stress and root cross sectional areaz (CSA) for four planting treatments three growing seasons after planting.
Planting treatmenty Degrees of trunk tilt 15 cm from ground 5 degrees 10 degrees 15 degrees Momentx Stressw Moment Stress Moment Stress Pearson’s correlation coefficient 57 L containerv 0.58 0.12 0.67 0.34 0.66 0.42 57 L container/ not slicedv 0.30 −0.49 0.39 −0.26 0.45 −0.03 170 L container/ slicedv −0.07 −0.40 0.00 −0.32 0.13 −0.16 Field-grownv 0.85* 0.51 0.93** 0.67 0.93* 0.64 All planting treatmentsu 0.93** 0.68** 0.93** 0.64** 0.93** 0.53** ↵zCSA of roots >3 mm diameter growing into landscape soil from the top 25 cm of root ball measured 5 cm beyond edge of original root ball.
↵y57 L container = 29 mm caliper trees from 57 L container; 170 L container/not sliced = 67 mm caliper trees from 170 L container with no root ball slicing at planting; 170 L container/sliced = 67 mm caliper trees from 170 L container with root ball sliced top to bottom in six places at planting; field grown = 80 mm caliper trees dug from field soil, all planted March 2005.
↵xMoment (trunk bending moment) = pulling force × distance from pulling point to point of inclinometer 15 cm from ground.
↵wStress (trunk bending stress) = (pulling force × distance from pulling point to inclinometer × trunk radius) ÷ (0.25π × trunk radius4).
↵vBased on seven trees per planting treatment.
↵uBased on all 28 trees across planting treatment.
↵**Significantly different from zero at P < 0.01;
↵*Significantly different from zero at P < 0.05.
- Table 6.
Trunk bending stressz per cm2 root CSAy (MPa/cm2) required to tilt lower trunk to three angles for four planting treatments three growing seasons after planting.
Planting treatmentx Trunk tilt angle (vertical degrees from start position) 5 degrees 10 degrees 15 degrees 57 L container 16.0aw 21.7a 25.9a 170 L container/ not sliced 12.0a 15.7b 17.1b 170 L container/ sliced 11.5a 15.3b 17.6b Field grown 3.8b 4.9c 5.5c ↵zBending stress = (pulling force × distance from pulling point to inclinometer × trunk radius) ÷ (0.25π × trunk radius4).
↵yCSA (cm2) of roots >3 mm diameter growing into landscape soil from the top 25 cm of root ball measured 5 cm beyond edge of original root ball.
↵x57 L container = 29 mm caliper trees from 57 L container; 170 L container/not sliced = 67 mm caliper trees from 170 L container with no root ball slicing at planting; 170 L container/sliced = 67 mm caliper trees from 170 L container with root ball sliced top to bottom in 6 places at planting; field grown = 80 mm caliper trees dug from field soil, all planted March 2005.
↵wSeven trees per treatment; means in a column followed by a different letter are statistically different at P < 0.001.
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