A Ground-Based Method of Assessing Urban Forest Structure and Ecosystem Services

LITERATURE CITED

1. ↵
   1. Baldocchi, D.

   1988. A multi-layer model for estimating sulfur dioxide deposition to a deciduous oak forest canopy. Atmospheric Environment 22: 869–884.

   OpenUrl
2. ↵
   1. Baldocchi, D.D.,
   2. B.B. Hicks, and
   3. P. Camara

   . 1987. A canopy stomatal resistance model for gaseous deposition to vegetated surfaces. Atmospheric Environment 21: 91–101.

   OpenUrl
3. ↵
   1. Barbour, M.G.,
   2. J.H. Burk, and
   3. W.D. Pitts

   . 1980. Terrestrial Plant Ecology. Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, CA. 604 pp.
4. ↵
   1. Bidwell, R.G.S., and
   2. D.E. Fraser

   . 1972. Carbon monoxide uptake and metabolism by leaves. Canadian Journal of Botany 50: 1435–1439.

   OpenUrl
5. ↵
   1. Boyd, J.B.

   1983. Natural Reproduction of Exotic and Indigenous Trees in Three Urban Environments. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI. 97 pp.
6. ↵
   1. Sharkey, T.D.,
   2. E.A. Holland, and
   3. H.A. Mooney

   1. Brasseur, G.P., and
   2. R.B. Chatfield

   . 1991. The fate of biogenic trace gases in the atmosphere, pp. 1–27. In: Sharkey, T.D., E.A. Holland, and H.A. Mooney (Eds.). Trace Gas Emissions by Plants. Academic Press, New York, NY.
7. ↵
   1. Burns, R.M., and
   2. B.H. Honkala

   . 1990a. Silvics of North America. Vol. 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 675 pp.
8. ↵
   1. Burns, R.M., and
   2. B.H. Honkala

   . 1990b. Silvics of North America. Vol. 2. Hardwoods. Agric. Handb. 654. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 877 pp.
9. ↵
   1. Buckelew Cumming, A.,
   2. D.J. Nowak,
   3. D.B. Twardus,
   4. R. Hoehn,
   5. M. Mielke, and
   6. R. Rideout

   . 2007. Urban Forests of Wisconsin 2002: Pilot Monitoring Project 2002. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry Report, NA-FR-05-07. 33 pp. www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/12685 (accessed 10/1/08).
10. ↵
    1. Cairns, M.A.,
    2. S. Brown,
    3. E.H. Helmer, and
    4. G.A. Baumgardner

    . 1997. Root biomass allocation in the world’s upland forests. Oecologia 111: 1–11.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
11. ↵
    1. The Capital District Regional Planning Commission

    . 2008. Consumer and Producer Price Indices. www.cdrpc.org/CPI_PPI.html (accessed 6/5/08).
12. ↵
    1. Chow, P., and
    2. G.L. Rolfe

    . 1989. Carbon and hydrogen contents of short-rotation biomass of five hardwood species. Wood and Fiber Science 21: 30–36.

    OpenUrl
13. ↵
    1. Clark, D.E.

    1979. Sunset New Western Garden Book. Lane Publ. Co., Menlo Park, CA. 512 pp.
14. ↵
    1. Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers

    . 1992. Guide for Plant Appraisal. International Society of Arboriculture, Savoy, IL. 103 pp.
15. ↵
    1. Derrenbacher, W.E.

    1969. Plants and Landscape: An Analysis of Ornamental Planting in Four Berkeley Neighborhoods. Master’s Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA. 231 pp.
16. ↵
    1. deVries, R.E.

    1987. A Preliminary Investigation of the Growth and Longevity of Trees in Central Park. M.S. Thesis, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. 95 pp.
17. ↵
    1. Dorney, J.R.,
    2. G.R. Guntenspergen,
    3. J.R. Keough, and
    4. F. Stearns

    . 1984. Composition and structure of an urban woody plant community. Urban Ecology 8: 69–90.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
18. ↵
    1. Duncan, J.S. Jr.

    . 1973. Landscape taste as a symbol of group identity. Geographical Review 63: 334–355.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
19. ↵
    1. Dwyer, J.F.,
    2. E.G. McPherson,
    3. H.W. Schroeder, and
    4. R.A. Rowntree

    . 1992. Assessing the benefits and costs of the urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture 18: 227–234.

    OpenUrl
20. ↵
    1. Energy Information Administration

    . 2003a. Sales Revenue Data. 27 Jan 2003. www.eia.doe.gov/electricity/page/sales_revenue.xls (accessed 4/3/03).
21. ↵
    1. Energy Information Administration

    . 2003b. Energy Markets and End Use. www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/states/_states.html (accessed 4/3/03).
22. ↵
    1. Energy Information Administration

    . 2003c. Natural Gas Monthly. 16 Apr 2003. www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/data_publications/natural_gas_monthly/current/pdf/table_15.pdf (accessed 4/3/03).
23. ↵
    1. Energy Information Administration

    . 2003d. Petroleum Marketing Monthly. Feb 2003. www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/petroleum_marketing_monthly/current/pdf/pmmtab18.pdf (accessed 4/3/03).
24. ↵
    1. Energy Information Administration

    . 2003e. Residential Energy Consumption Survey. 27 Feb 2001. www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/consumptionbriefs/recs/heating_oil/region_oil.html (accessed 4/3/03).
25. ↵
    1. Energy Information Administration

    . 2003f. Residential Energy Consumption Survey. 27 Feb 2001. http://eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/glossary.html (accessed 4/3/03).
26. ↵
    1. Escobedo, F.J.,
    2. D.J. Nowak,
    3. J.E. Wagner,
    4. C. Luz de la Maza, and
    5. M. Rodriguez

    . 2006. The socioeconomics and management of Santiago de Chile’s public urban forest. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 4: 105–114.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Fankhauser, S.

    1994. The social costs of greenhouse gas emissions: An expected value approach. The Energy Journal 15: 157–184.

    OpenUrl
28. ↵
    1. Fleming, L.E.

    1988. Growth Estimation of Street Trees in Central New Jersey. M.S. Thesis, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. 143 pp.
29. ↵
    1. Forest Products Laboratory

    . 1952. Chemical Analyses of Wood. Tech. Note 235. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI. 4 pp.
30. ↵
    1. Frelich, L.E.

    1992. Predicting Dimensional Relationships for Twin Cities Shade Trees. University of Minnesota, Department of Forest Resources, St. Paul, MN. 33 pp.
31. ↵
    1. Geron, C.D.,
    2. A.B. Guenther, and
    3. T.E. Pierce

    . 1994. An improved model for estimating emissions of volatile organic compounds from forests in the eastern United States. Journal of Geophysical Research 99: 12773–12791.

    OpenUrl
32. ↵
    1. Gilbert, O.L.

    1989. The Ecology of Urban Habitats. Chapman and Hall, London, UK. 369 pp.
33. ↵
    1. Gleason, H.A., and
    2. A. Cronquist

    . 1991. Manual of vascular plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. 910 pp.
34. ↵
    1. Grimm, W.C.

    1962. The Book of Trees. Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, PA. 487 pp.
35. ↵
    1. Ham, D.,
    2. C. Post,
    3. D. Vanblaricom,
    4. D. Lipscomb,
    5. D. Hargett, and
    6. D.J. Nowak

    . 2003. Analysis of the explosively urbanizing South Carolina Interstate 85 corridor. Proceedings of the 2003 National Urban Forest Conference, San Antonio, TX, September 17–20, 2003.
36. ↵
    1. Hough, R.B.

    1907. Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada. R.B. Hough, Lowville, NY. 470 pp.
37. ↵
    1. Hyams, E.S.

    1970. English Cottage Gardens. Nelson, London, UK. 234 pp.
38. ↵
    1. Holzner, W.,
    2. M.J. Werger, and
    3. I. Ikusima

    1. Iizumi, S.

    1983. The urban vegetation of Tokyo and Sendai, Japan, pp. 335–340. In: Holzner, W., M.J. Werger, and I. Ikusima (Eds.). Man’s Impact on Vegetation. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands.
39. ↵
    1. International Society of Arboriculture

    . 1988. Valuation of Landscape Trees, Shrubs, and Other Plants. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, IL. 50 pp.
40. ↵
    1. i-Tree

    . 2008. i-Tree Software Suite v2.0. 239 pp. www.itreetools.org/resource_learning_center/elements/i-Tree_v20_UsersManual.pdf (accessed 10/1/08).
41. ↵
    1. Lange, O.L.,
    2. P.S. Nobel,
    3. C.B. Osmond, and
    4. H. Ziegler

    1. Jarvis, P.G., and
    2. J.W. Leverenz

    . 1983. Productivity of temperate, deciduous and evergreen forests, pp. 233–280. In: Lange, O.L., P.S. Nobel, C.B. Osmond, and H. Ziegler (Eds.). Physiological Plant Ecology IV, Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology. Vol. 12D. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
42. ↵
    1. Jones, A.W.

    1957. The flora of the city of London bombed sites. The London Naturalist 37: 189–210.

    OpenUrl
43. ↵
    1. Jim, C.Y.

    1989. The distribution and configuration of tree cover in urban Hong Kong. GeoJournal 18: 175–188.

    OpenUrl
44. ↵
    1. Kinnee, E.,
    2. C. Geron, and
    3. T. Pierce

    . 1997. United States land use inventory for estimating biogenic ozone precursor emissions. Ecological Applications 7: 46–58.

    OpenUrl
45. ↵
    1. Bornkamm, R.,
    2. J.A. Lee, and
    3. M.R. Seaward

    1. Kunick, W.

    1982. Comparison of the flora of some cities of the central European lowlands, pp. 13–22. In: Bornkamm, R., J.A. Lee, and M.R. Seaward (Eds.). Urban Ecology. Blackwell Science Publication, Oxford, UK.
46. ↵
    1. Kuo, F.E., and
    2. W.C. Sullivan

    . 2001. Environment and crime in the inner city: Does vegetation reduce crime? Environment and Behavior 33: 343–365.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
47. ↵
    1. Leverenz, J.W., and
    2. T.M. Hinckley

    . 1990. Shoot structure, leaf area index and productivity of evergreen conifer stands. Tree Physiology 6: 135–149.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
48. ↵
    1. Liebhold, A.M.,
    2. K.W. Gottschalk,
    3. R. Muzika,
    4. M.E. Montgomery,
    5. R. Young,
    6. K. O’Day, and
    7. B. Kelley

    . 1995. Suitability of North American Tree Species to the Gypsy Moth: A Summary of Field and Laboratory Tests. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-211. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Radnor, PA. 34 pp.
49. ↵
    1. Little, E.L.

    1971. Atlas of United States Trees. Vol. 1. Conifers and Important Hardwoods. Misc. Pub. 1146. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. 400 pp.
50. ↵
    1. Little, E.L.

    1976. Atlas of United States Trees. Vol. 3. Minor Western Hardwoods. Misc. Pub. 1314. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. 300 pp.
51. ↵
    1. Little, E.L.

    1977. Atlas of United States Trees. Vol. 4. Minor Eastern Hardwoods. Misc. Pub. 1342. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. 235 pp.
52. ↵
    1. Little, E.L.

    1978. Atlas of United States Trees. Vol. 5. Florida. Misc. Pub. 1361. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. 138 pp.
53. ↵
    1. Lovett, G.M.

    1994. Atmospheric deposition of nutrients and pollutants in North America: An ecological perspective. Ecological Applications 4: 629–650.

    OpenUrl
54. ↵
    1. Lozano, J.V.

    2004. Distribucion del arbolado urbano en la ciudad de Fuenlabrada y su contribucion a la calidad del aire. Ciudad y Territorio. Estudios Territoriales 36: 419–427.

    OpenUrl
55. ↵
    1. Maxwell, E.L.

    1994. A meteorological/statistical solar radiation model, pp. 421–426. In: Proceedings of the 1994 Annual Conference of the American Solar Energy Society. American Solar Energy Society, San Jose, CA.
56. ↵
    1. McBride, J.R., and
    2. D.F. Jacobs

    . 1976. Urban forest development: A case study, Menlo Park, California. Urban Ecology 2: 1–14.

    OpenUrl
57. ↵
    1. McBride, J.R., and
    2. D.F. Jacobs

    . 1986. Presettlement forest structure as a factor in urban forest development. Urban Ecology 9: 245–266.

    OpenUrl
58. ↵
    1. McNeil, J., and
    2. C. Vava

    . 2006. Oakville’s Urban Forest: Our Solution to Our Pollution. Town of Oakville Report, Oakville, Ontario. 67 pp. www.oakville.ca/Media_Files/forestry/UFORE.pdf (accessed 10/1/08).
59. ↵
    1. McPherson, E.G.

    1998. Structure and sustainability of Sacramento’s urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture 24: 174–190.

    OpenUrl
60. ↵
    1. McPherson, E.G., and
    2. J.R. Simpson

    . 1999. Carbon Dioxide Reduction Through Urban Forestry: Guidelines for Professional and Volunteer Tree Planters. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-171. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Albany, CA. 237 pp.
61. ↵
    1. Miller, P.R., and
    2. A.M. Winer

    . 1984. Composition and dominance in Los Angeles Basin urban vegetation. Urban Ecology 8: 29–54.

    OpenUrl
62. ↵
    1. Monteith, J.L., and
    2. M.H. Unsworth

    . 1990. Principles of Environmental Physics. Edward Arnold, New York, NY. 291 pp.
63. ↵
    1. Moran, M.A.

    1984. Influence of adjacent land use on understory vegetation of New York forests. Urban Ecology 8: 329–340.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
64. ↵
    1. Murray, F.J.,
    2. L. Marsh, and
    3. P.A. Bradford

    . 1994. New York State Energy Plan, Vol. II: Issue Reports. New York State Energy Office, Albany, NY.
65. ↵
    1. National Center for Atmospheric Research

    . 2008. Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN). http://bai.acd.ucar.edu/Megan/ (accessed 10/1/08).
66. 1. National Climatic Data Center

    . 2008. Integrated Surface Hourly Observations. http://ols.nndc.noaa.gov/plolstore/plsql/olstore.prodspecific?prodnum=C00353-CDR-S0001 (accessed 6/5/08).
67. ↵
    1. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

    . 2008. Biogenic Emissions Inventory System (BEIS) Modeling. /www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/biogen.html (accessed 10/1/08).
68. ↵
    1. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection

    . 2002. DEP Announces $1 Million Urban Airshed Reforestation Project From Conectiv Enforcement Settlement. Press release 02/111, 10/26/02. www.state.nj.us/dep/newsrel/releases/02_0111.htm (accessed 10/1/08).
69. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.

    1991. Urban Forest Development and Structure: Analysis of Oakland, California. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, CA. 232 pp.
70. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.

    1994a. Understanding the structure of urban forests. Journal of Forestry 92: 42–46.

    OpenUrl
71. ↵
    1. McPherson, E.G,
    2. D.J. Nowak, and
    3. R.A. Rowntree

    1. Nowak, D.J.

    1994b. Urban forest structure: The state of Chicago’s urban forest, pp. 3–18, 140–164. In: McPherson, E.G, D.J. Nowak, and R.A. Rowntree (Eds.). Chicago’s Urban Forest Ecosystem: Results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NE-186.
72. ↵
    1. McPherson, E.G.,
    2. D.J. Nowak, and
    3. R.A. Rowntree

    1. Nowak, D.J.

    1994c. Atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction by Chicago’s urban forest, pp. 83–94. In: McPherson, E.G., D.J. Nowak, and R.A. Rowntree (Eds.). Chicago’s Urban Forest Ecosystem: Results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-186. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Radnor, PA.
73. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.

    1996. Estimating leaf area and leaf biomass of open-grown deciduous urban trees. Forest Science 42: 504–507.

    OpenUrlWeb of Science
74. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. K.L. Civerolo,
    3. S.T. Rao,
    4. G. Sistla,
    5. C.J. Luley, and
    6. D.E. Crane

    . 2000. A modeling study of the impact of urban trees on ozone. Atmospheric Environment 34: 1601–1613.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
75. ↵
    1. Hansen M., and
    2. T. Burk

    1. Nowak, D.J., and
    2. D.E. Crane

    . 2000. The urban forest effects (UFORE) model: Quantifying urban forest structure and functions, pp. 714–720. In: Hansen M., and T. Burk (Eds.). In: Proceedings Integrated Tools for Natural Resources Inventories in the 21st Century. IUFRO Conference, 16–20 August 1998, Boise, ID. General Technical Report NC-212, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station, St. Paul, MN.
76. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J., and
    2. D.E. Crane

    . 2002. Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental Pollution 116: 381–389.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
77. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. D.E. Crane, and
    3. J.F. Dwyer

    . 2002a. Compensatory value of urban trees in the United States. Journal of Arboriculture 28: 194–199.

    OpenUrl
78. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. D.E. Crane, and
    3. J.C. Stevens

    . 2006a. Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 4: 115–123.

    OpenUrl
79. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. D.E. Crane,
    3. J.C. Stevens, and
    4. M. Ibarra

    . 2002b. Brooklyn’s Urban Forest. General Technical Report NE-290, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 107 pp.
80. ↵
    1. Kuser, J.

    1. Nowak, D.J., and
    2. J.F. Dwyer

    . 2007. Understanding the benefits and costs of urban forest ecosystems, pp. 25–46. In: Kuser, J. (Ed.). Urban and Community Forestry in the Northeast. Springer Science and Business Media, New York, NY.
81. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. R.H. Hoehn, and
    3. D.E. Crane

    . 2007a. Oxygen production by urban trees in the United States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry 33: 220–226.

    OpenUrl
82. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. R. Hoehn,
    3. D.E. Crane,
    4. J.C. Stevens, and
    5. J.T. Walton

    . 2006b. Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values: Minneapolis’ Urban Forest. Resource Bulletin NE-166. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 20 pp.
83. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. R. Hoehn,
    3. D.E. Crane,
    4. J.C. Stevens, and
    5. J.T. Walton

    . 2006c. Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values: Washington, DC’s Urban Forest. Resource Bulletin NRS-1. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 24 pp.
84. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. R. Hoehn,
    3. D.E. Crane,
    4. J.C. Stevens, and
    5. J.T. Walton

    . 2006d. Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values: Casper’s Urban Forest. Resource Bulletin NRS-4. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 20 pp.
85. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. R. Hoehn,
    3. D.E. Crane,
    4. J.C. Stevens, and
    5. J.T. Walton

    . 2007b. Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values: Philadelphia’s Urban Forest. Resource Bulletin NRS-7. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 22 pp.
86. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. R. Hoehn,
    3. D.E. Crane,
    4. J.C. Stevens, and
    5. J.T. Walton

    . 2007c. Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values: San Francisco’s Urban Forest. Resource Bulletin NRS-8. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 22 pp.
87. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. R. Hoehn,
    3. D.E. Crane,
    4. J.C. Stevens, and
    5. J.T. Walton

    . 2007d. Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values: New York City’s Urban Forest. Resource Bulletin NRS-9. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 22 pp.
88. ↵
    1. Gryning, S.E., and
    2. N. Chaumerliac

    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. P.J. McHale,
    3. M. Ibarra,
    4. D. Crane,
    5. J. Stevens, and
    6. C. Luley

    . 1998. Modeling the effects of urban vegetation on air pollution, pp. 399–407. In: Gryning, S.E., and N. Chaumerliac (Eds.). Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application XII. Plenum Press, New York, NY.
89. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J., and
    2. P. O’Connor

    . 2001. Syracuse Urban Forest Master Plan: Guiding the City’s Forest Resource in the 21st Century. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report. 50 pp.
90. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. J. Pasek,
    3. R. Sequeira,
    4. D.E. Crane, and
    5. V. Mastro

    . 2001. Potential effect of Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) on urban trees in the United States. Journal of Economic Entomology 94: 116–122.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
91. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. R.A. Rowntree,
    3. E.G. McPherson,
    4. S.M. Sisinni,
    5. E. Kerkmann, and
    6. J.C. Stevens

    . 1996. Measuring and analyzing urban tree cover. Landscape and Urban Planning 36: 49–57.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
92. ↵
    1. Nowak, D.J.,
    2. J.T. Walton,
    3. J.C. Stevens,
    4. D.E. Crane, and
    5. R.E. Hoehn

    . 2008. Effect of plot and sample size on timing and precision of urban forest assessments. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry 34: 386–390.

    OpenUrl
93. ↵
    1. Miyawaki, A., and
    2. Tuxen, R

    1. Numata, M.

    1977. The impact of urbanization on vegetation in Japan, pp. 161–171. In: Miyawaki, A., and Tuxen, R. (Eds.). Vegetation Science and Environmental Protection. Maruzen Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.
94. ↵
    1. Onstad, D.W.,
    2. D.J. Nowak, and
    3. M.R. Jeffords

    . 1997. Potential defoliation of trees by outbreak populations of gypsy moth in the Chicago area. Journal of Arboriculture 23: 57–64.

    OpenUrl
95. ↵
    1. Peper, P.J., and
    2. E.G. McPherson

    . 1998. Comparison of five methods for estimating leaf area index of open-grown deciduous trees. Journal of Arboriculture 24: 98–111.

    OpenUrl
96. ↵
    1. Platt, R.

    1968. Discover American Trees. Dodd, Mead and Co., New York, NY. 256 pp.
97. ↵
    1. Preston, R.J.

    1976. North American Trees. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA. 399 pp.
98. ↵
    1. Profous, G.

    1984. Forest changes in the Bronx. Journal of Forestry 82: 559–560.

    OpenUrl
99. ↵
    1. Profous, G.,
    2. R.A. Rowntree, and
    3. R.E. Loeb

    . 1988. The urban forest landscape of Athens, Greece: Aspects of structure, planning and management. Arboricultural Journal 12: 83–107.

    OpenUrl
100. ↵
     1. Richards, N.A.,
     2. J.R. Mallette,
     3. R.J. Simpson, and
     4. E.A. Macie

     . 1984. Residential greenspace and vegetation in a mature city: Syracuse, New York. Urban Ecology 8: 99–125.

     OpenUrl
101. ↵
     1. Rowntree, R.A.

     1984. Forest canopy cover and land use in four eastern United States cities. Urban Ecology 8: 55–67.

     OpenUrlCrossRef
102. ↵
     1. Sanders, R.A.

     1983. Configuration of tree canopy cover in urban land uses. Geographical Perspectives 51: 49–53.

     OpenUrl
103. ↵
     1. Santamour, F.S. Jr.

     . 1983. Woody-plant succession in the urban forest: Filling cracks and crevices. Journal of Arboriculture 9: 267–270.

     OpenUrl
104. ↵
     1. Schmid, J.A.

     1975. Urban Vegetation: A Review and Chicago Case Study. Vol. 161. Research Paper, Dept. of Geography, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, IL. 266 pp.
105. ↵
     1. Smith, F.W.,
     2. D.A. Sampson, and
     3. J.N. Long

     . 1991. Comparison of leaf area index estimates from allometrics and measured light interception. Forest Science 37: 1682–1688.

     OpenUrlWeb of Science
106. ↵
     1. Smith, W.B., and
     2. S.R. Shifley

     . 1984. Diameter Growth, Survival, and Volume Estimates for Trees in Indiana and Illinois. Res. Pap. NC-257. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN. 10 pp.
107. ↵
     1. Laurie, I.

     1. Sukopp, H.,
     2. H.P. Blume, and
     3. W. Kunick

     . 1979. The soil, flora, and vegetation of Berlin’s waste lands, pp. 115–132. In: Laurie, I. (Ed.). Nature in Cities. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.
108. ↵
     1. U.S. Department of Labor and Statistics

     . 2003. Consumer Price Indices. 16 Apr 2003. www.ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/cpi/cpiai.txt (accessed 4/3/03).
109. ↵
     1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

     . 2008. Technology Transfer Network (TTN) Air Quality System (AQS). www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/detaildata/downloadaqsdata.htm (accessed 10/1/08).
110. ↵
     1. Viereck, L.A., and
     2. E.L. Little

     . 1975. Atlas of United States Trees. Vol. 2. Alaska Trees and Common Shrubs. Misc. Publ. 1293. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. 109 pp.
111. ↵
     1. Westphal, L.M.

     2003. Urban greening and social benefits: A study of empowerment outcomes. Journal of Arboriculture 29: 137–147.

     OpenUrl
112. ↵
     1. Whitney, G.G.

     1985. A quantitative analysis of the flora and plant communities of a representative midwestern U.S. town. Urban Ecology 9: 143–160.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
113. ↵
     1. Winer, A.M.,
     2. D.R. Fitz,
     3. P.R. Miller,
     4. R. Atkinson,
     5. D.E. Brown,
     6. W.P. Carter,
     7. M.C. Dodd,
     8. C.W. Johnson,
     9. M.A. Myers,
     10. K.R. Neisess,
     11. M.P. Poe, and
     12. E.R. Stephens

     . 1983. Investigation of the Role of Natural Hydrocarbons in Photochemical Smog Formation in California. Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, Riverside, CA.
114. ↵
     1. Wolf, K.M.

     2003. Public response to the urban forest in inner-city business districts. Journal of Arboriculture 29: 117–126.

     OpenUrl
115. ↵
     1. Yang, J.,
     2. J. McBride,
     3. J. Zhou, and
     4. Z. Sun

     . 2005. The urban forest in Beijing and its role in air pollution reduction. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 3: 65–78.

     OpenUrl
116. ↵
     1. Sopper, W.E., and
     2. H.W. Lull

     1. Zinke, P.J.

     1967. Forest interception studies in the United States, pp. 137–161. In: Sopper, W.E., and H.W. Lull (Eds.). Forest Hydrology. Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.